[
  {
    "id": "ni-saishite",
    "pattern": "〜に際して",
    "reading": "〜にさいして",
    "romaji": "ni saishite",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "on the occasion of; when; at the time of",
    "formation": "Noun + に際して / Verb-dict + に際して / Noun + に際しての + Noun",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "新製品の発売に際して、記者会見が開かれた。",
        "furigana": "{新|しん}{製品|せいひん}の{発売|はつばい}に{際|さい}して、{記者|きしゃ}{会見|かいけん}が{開|ひら}かれた。",
        "en": "A press conference was held on the occasion of the new product's launch."
      },
      {
        "ja": "海外へ渡航するに際しては、現地の安全情報を必ず確認してください。",
        "furigana": "{海外|かいがい}へ{渡航|とこう}するに{際|さい}しては、{現地|げんち}の{安全|あんぜん}{情報|じょうほう}を{必|かなら}ず{確認|かくにん}してください。",
        "en": "When traveling abroad, be sure to check the local safety information."
      },
      {
        "ja": "契約の更新に際しての注意事項をまとめました。",
        "furigana": "{契約|けいやく}の{更新|こうしん}に{際|さい}しての{注意|ちゅうい}{事項|じこう}をまとめました。",
        "en": "We have summarized the points to note when renewing the contract."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "time",
      "formal"
    ],
    "notes": "Formal; for special, one-off occasions (ceremonies, departures, contracts). Near-synonym of 〜にあたって, which adds a sense of preparing for or facing the event; に際して simply marks the occasion.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "1e4d69548eb008e41446fd198faf9c1f5b063c7595b759ba0308fa76f714354a",
      "meanings": [
        "在……之际",
        "当……时"
      ],
      "formation": "名词／动词辞书形＋に際して；名词＋に際しての＋名词",
      "explanation": "表示在某个重要时刻或场合。",
      "notes": "多用于正式场合和一次性的事件。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "新製品の発売に際して、記者会見が開かれた。",
          "zh": "新产品上市之际举行了记者会。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "海外へ渡航するに際しては、現地の安全情報を必ず確認してください。",
          "zh": "出国时，请务必确认当地安全信息。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "契約の更新に際しての注意事項をまとめました。",
          "zh": "我整理了续约时的注意事项。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-saishite",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "a7af2bae3194e4d8bf55d8ad4a71c1cc8af96e41e4817c573232a06f07737756"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-tomonatte",
    "pattern": "〜に伴って",
    "reading": "〜にともなって",
    "romaji": "ni tomonatte",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "along with; as; accompanying",
    "formation": "Noun + に伴って / Verb-dict + の + に伴って / Noun + に伴う + Noun",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "高齢化に伴って、医療費は年々増加している。",
        "furigana": "{高齢|こうれい}{化|か}に{伴|ともな}って、{医療|いりょう}{費|ひ}は{年々|ねんねん}{増加|ぞうか}している。",
        "en": "Along with the aging of the population, medical costs are rising year by year."
      },
      {
        "ja": "工場の移転に伴い、約二百人の従業員が転勤することになった。",
        "furigana": "{工場|こうじょう}の{移転|いてん}に{伴|ともな}い、{約|やく}{二|に}{百|ひゃく}{人|にん}の{従業|じゅうぎょう}{員|いん}が{転勤|てんきん}することになった。",
        "en": "With the relocation of the factory, about two hundred employees are to be transferred."
      },
      {
        "ja": "台風の接近に伴う大雨に注意してください。",
        "furigana": "{台風|たいふう}の{接近|せっきん}に{伴|ともな}う{大雨|おおあめ}に{注意|ちゅうい}してください。",
        "en": "Please watch out for heavy rain accompanying the approaching typhoon."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "change",
      "simultaneity",
      "formal"
    ],
    "notes": "〜に伴い is the more written form. Like 〜につれて it can describe gradual change, but it also covers one-off events that bring about another (e.g. a relocation).",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "bd65ba328eaab68333470a58e47a9f36bc876792bbd47bd9c15578a3352e1634",
      "meanings": [
        "随着",
        "伴随"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋に伴って；动词辞书形＋（の）に伴って；名词＋に伴う＋名词",
      "explanation": "表示随着一件事发生或变化，另一件事也随之发生或变化。",
      "notes": "に伴い较书面；也可用于一次性的事件。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "高齢化に伴って、医療費は年々増加している。",
          "zh": "随着老龄化，医疗费用逐年增加。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "工場の移転に伴い、約二百人の従業員が転勤することになった。",
          "zh": "随着工厂搬迁，约二百名员工将调职。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "台風の接近に伴う大雨に注意してください。",
          "zh": "请注意台风接近带来的大雨。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-tomonatte",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "28134b644d6f0d1aef63f498b4e02c47eb75d25052903613b7c0b1562a5661ab"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-oujite",
    "pattern": "〜に応じて",
    "reading": "〜におうじて",
    "romaji": "ni oujite",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "according to; depending on; in response to",
    "formation": "Noun + に応じて / Noun + に応じた + Noun",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "この奨学金は、家庭の収入に応じて支給額が変わる。",
        "furigana": "この{奨学|しょうがく}{金|きん}は、{家庭|かてい}の{収入|しゅうにゅう}に{応|おう}じて{支給|しきゅう}{額|がく}が{変|か}わる。",
        "en": "The amount of this scholarship varies according to household income."
      },
      {
        "ja": "お客様のご予算に応じたプランをご提案いたします。",
        "furigana": "お{客様|きゃくさま}のご{予算|よさん}に{応|おう}じたプランをご{提案|ていあん}いたします。",
        "en": "We will propose a plan that suits your budget."
      },
      {
        "ja": "会社は社員の要望に応じて、在宅勤務の制度を導入した。",
        "furigana": "{会社|かいしゃ}は{社員|しゃいん}の{要望|ようぼう}に{応|おう}じて、{在宅|ざいたく}{勤務|きんむ}の{制度|せいど}を{導入|どうにゅう}した。",
        "en": "In response to employees' requests, the company introduced a work-from-home system."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "relation",
      "condition"
    ],
    "notes": "B is adjusted to match A (ability, budget, season, requests). Compare 〜次第で, which stresses that the outcome is decided entirely by A.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "e5bbac7bc0d412d070692af939ab6bbd74eb027b49c5d980eeca4e200d419b19",
      "meanings": [
        "根据",
        "响应"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋に応じて／に応じた＋名词",
      "explanation": "表示根据条件进行调整，或回应要求。",
      "notes": "常接能力、预算、收入或请求等。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "この奨学金は、家庭の収入に応じて支給額が変わる。",
          "zh": "这项奖学金的金额随家庭收入而变化。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "お客様のご予算に応じたプランをご提案いたします。",
          "zh": "我们将根据您的预算提出方案。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "会社は社員の要望に応じて、在宅勤務の制度を導入した。",
          "zh": "公司响应员工的要求，引入了居家办公制度。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-oujite",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "87c677aed1c142c0a98d8c12f6a299a851e124d1501d5a39c884082fa2d13b77"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-hanshite",
    "pattern": "〜に反して",
    "reading": "〜にはんして",
    "romaji": "ni hanshite",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "contrary to; against; in violation of",
    "formation": "Noun + に反して / Noun + に反する + Noun / Noun + に反した + Noun",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "大方の予想に反して、無名の新人が優勝した。",
        "furigana": "{大方|おおかた}の{予想|よそう}に{反|はん}して、{無名|むめい}の{新人|しんじん}が{優勝|ゆうしょう}した。",
        "en": "Contrary to most people's predictions, an unknown newcomer won the championship."
      },
      {
        "ja": "本人の意思に反して、彼は地方の支店に異動させられた。",
        "furigana": "{本人|ほんにん}の{意思|いし}に{反|はん}して、{彼|かれ}は{地方|ちほう}の{支店|してん}に{異動|いどう}させられた。",
        "en": "Against his own wishes, he was transferred to a regional branch."
      },
      {
        "ja": "たとえ上司の指示であっても、法律に反することはすべきではない。",
        "furigana": "たとえ{上司|じょうし}の{指示|しじ}であっても、{法律|ほうりつ}に{反|はん}することはすべきではない。",
        "en": "Even if your boss tells you to, you shouldn't do anything that goes against the law."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "contrast",
      "formal"
    ],
    "notes": "Used with nouns like 予想, 期待, 意思, 規則. With a rule or law as the noun, it means 'in violation of'.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "2672b9fa25118ae50888776bab12ec9d5d58d10668869cb932f184019c0b1c36",
      "meanings": [
        "与……相反",
        "违反"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋に反して／に反する＋名词／に反した＋名词",
      "explanation": "表示与预期、意愿或规则相反。",
      "notes": "接法律、规则时可表示违反。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "大方の予想に反して、無名の新人が優勝した。",
          "zh": "出乎大多数人的预料，一位无名新人夺冠了。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "本人の意思に反して、彼は地方の支店に異動させられた。",
          "zh": "违背他本人的意愿，他被调往地方分公司。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "たとえ上司の指示であっても、法律に反することはすべきではない。",
          "zh": "即便是上司的指示，也不应该做违法的事。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-hanshite",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "f4d8e17f2828bee5f26afc74dae697fe489a0613950888fa8b2fe823b2694e3c"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-motozuite",
    "pattern": "〜に基づいて",
    "reading": "〜にもとづいて",
    "romaji": "ni motozuite",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "based on; on the basis of",
    "formation": "Noun + に基づいて / Noun + に基づく + Noun / Noun + に基づいた + Noun",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "この映画は実際に起きた事件に基づいて制作された。",
        "furigana": "この{映画|えいが}は{実際|じっさい}に{起|お}きた{事件|じけん}に{基|もと}づいて{制作|せいさく}された。",
        "en": "This film was made based on an incident that actually happened."
      },
      {
        "ja": "アンケートの結果に基づき、来年度の計画を見直すことにした。",
        "furigana": "アンケートの{結果|けっか}に{基|もと}づき、{来年度|らいねんど}の{計画|けいかく}を{見直|みなお}すことにした。",
        "en": "Based on the survey results, we decided to revise next year's plan."
      },
      {
        "ja": "科学的な根拠に基づいた判断が求められている。",
        "furigana": "{科学|かがく}{的|てき}な{根拠|こんきょ}に{基|もと}づいた{判断|はんだん}が{求|もと}められている。",
        "en": "Decisions grounded in scientific evidence are called for."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "relation",
      "formal"
    ],
    "notes": "The basis is a firm standard such as data, law, facts or experience, and B follows it closely. Compare 〜をもとに, used for material from which something new is created.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "28fa4cab626f370ad4d3f552158928c8c1e45f8234dbc3ed367f62e1b1e64ffd",
      "meanings": [
        "依据",
        "根据"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋に基づいて／に基づく＋名词／に基づいた＋名词",
      "explanation": "表示以事实、数据或法律等为依据。",
      "notes": "に基づき是较书面的形式。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "この映画は実際に起きた事件に基づいて制作された。",
          "zh": "这部电影根据真实事件制作。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "アンケートの結果に基づき、来年度の計画を見直すことにした。",
          "zh": "根据问卷结果，我们决定重新审视下一年度的计划。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "科学的な根拠に基づいた判断が求められている。",
          "zh": "需要基于科学依据作出判断。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-motozuite",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "0ee46db3d404399160c28675e92d5e467582e842d460af1801dd73d81739a418"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-watatte",
    "pattern": "〜にわたって",
    "romaji": "ni watatte",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "over; throughout; spanning (a whole period or area)",
    "formation": "Noun + にわたって / Noun + にわたる + Noun",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "工事は三か月にわたって行われる予定だ。",
        "furigana": "{工事|こうじ}は{三|さん}か{月|げつ}にわたって{行|おこな}われる{予定|よてい}だ。",
        "en": "The construction is scheduled to take place over three months."
      },
      {
        "ja": "昨夜の大雪で、関東地方の広い範囲にわたって交通が乱れた。",
        "furigana": "{昨夜|さくや}の{大雪|おおゆき}で、{関東|かんとう}{地方|ちほう}の{広|ひろ}い{範囲|はんい}にわたって{交通|こうつう}が{乱|みだ}れた。",
        "en": "Last night's heavy snow disrupted transportation over a wide area of the Kanto region."
      },
      {
        "ja": "両国の首脳は、二日間にわたる会談を終えた。",
        "furigana": "{両国|りょうこく}の{首脳|しゅのう}は、{二日間|ふつかかん}にわたる{会談|かいだん}を{終|お}えた。",
        "en": "The leaders of the two countries concluded two days of talks."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "time",
      "range",
      "formal"
    ],
    "notes": "Stresses the full extent of a long period, a wide area or many items (多岐にわたる). Not used for short or small spans.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "ecd1a6ccee19dda94d408f39eabd69e0ba9a9c1e5a44d579f4c328b3c46d43f4",
      "meanings": [
        "持续",
        "遍及"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋にわたって／にわたる＋名词",
      "explanation": "强调涉及的时间、地域或事项的整个范围。",
      "notes": "常用于较长时间、广阔范围或众多项目。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "工事は三か月にわたって行われる予定だ。",
          "zh": "工程预计持续三个月。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "昨夜の大雪で、関東地方の広い範囲にわたって交通が乱れた。",
          "zh": "昨夜的大雪使关东地区大范围交通受阻。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "両国の首脳は、二日間にわたる会談を終えた。",
          "zh": "两国领导人结束了为期两天的会谈。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-watatte",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "669032c482adebf2778e21f94680d812123155bd98686f12ac9c4c43b442dd97"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-sotte",
    "pattern": "〜に沿って",
    "reading": "〜にそって",
    "romaji": "ni sotte",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "along; in line with; following",
    "formation": "Noun + に沿って / Noun + に沿った + Noun",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "川に沿って桜並木が二キロほど続いている。",
        "furigana": "{川|かわ}に{沿|そ}って{桜|さくら}{並木|なみき}が{二|に}キロほど{続|つづ}いている。",
        "en": "A row of cherry trees stretches for about two kilometers along the river."
      },
      {
        "ja": "マニュアルに沿って作業を進めてください。",
        "furigana": "マニュアルに{沿|そ}って{作業|さぎょう}を{進|すす}めてください。",
        "en": "Please proceed with the work according to the manual."
      },
      {
        "ja": "お客様のご要望に沿ったデザインを考えます。",
        "furigana": "お{客様|きゃくさま}のご{要望|ようぼう}に{沿|そ}ったデザインを{考|かんが}えます。",
        "en": "We will come up with a design that meets the customer's wishes."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "relation",
      "manner"
    ],
    "notes": "Literal use: along a road, river or coast. Abstract use: following a plan, policy, or someone's wishes.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "1ceeed5797d24bec258fb017a9e0a745143be633571354207060bff6403244eb",
      "meanings": [
        "沿着",
        "按照"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋に沿って／に沿った＋名词",
      "explanation": "表示沿某路线，或遵循计划、方针、要求。",
      "notes": "既可用于具体地点，也可用于抽象标准。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "川に沿って桜並木が二キロほど続いている。",
          "zh": "沿河的樱花树排列绵延约两公里。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "マニュアルに沿って作業を進めてください。",
          "zh": "请按照手册进行工作。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "お客様のご要望に沿ったデザインを考えます。",
          "zh": "我们将考虑符合客户要求的设计。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-sotte",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "4da21e9b59447c5e343d216c12d0fd43b39f781074b1dc4f6900a83349aa6e9a"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-kuwaete",
    "pattern": "〜に加えて",
    "reading": "〜にくわえて",
    "romaji": "ni kuwaete",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "in addition to; on top of",
    "formation": "Noun + に加えて",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "今年は猛暑に加えて雨不足が続き、野菜の価格が高騰している。",
        "furigana": "{今年|ことし}は{猛暑|もうしょ}に{加|くわ}えて{雨不足|あめぶそく}が{続|つづ}き、{野菜|やさい}の{価格|かかく}が{高騰|こうとう}している。",
        "en": "This year, on top of the extreme heat, there has been a prolonged lack of rain, and vegetable prices have soared."
      },
      {
        "ja": "この仕事には、語学力に加えて交渉力も必要だ。",
        "furigana": "この{仕事|しごと}には、{語学|ごがく}{力|りょく}に{加|くわ}えて{交渉|こうしょう}{力|りょく}も{必要|ひつよう}だ。",
        "en": "This job requires negotiating skills in addition to language ability."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "addition",
      "formal"
    ],
    "notes": "Somewhat formal; 〜に加え is the written form. The added item is often marked with も.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "24cb85bb76bf71ade55730f7b46a0c1f637cf2daf7a1c4195ad6313121044e99",
      "meanings": [
        "加上",
        "除了……还"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋に加えて／に加え",
      "explanation": "表示在已有事项之外再加上一项。",
      "notes": "に加え较书面；后项常用も。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "今年は猛暑に加えて雨不足が続き、野菜の価格が高騰している。",
          "zh": "今年除了酷暑，还持续缺雨，蔬菜价格暴涨。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "この仕事には、語学力に加えて交渉力も必要だ。",
          "zh": "这项工作除了语言能力，还需要谈判能力。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-kuwaete",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "68c82ce8a429f348dac6fc90a121d7d2b58c39ebedfbfe05e89d9d50374d9005"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "o-megutte",
    "pattern": "〜をめぐって",
    "romaji": "o megutte",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "over; concerning; surrounding (an issue of dispute)",
    "formation": "Noun + をめぐって / Noun + をめぐる + Noun",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "新しい空港の建設をめぐって、住民の意見が二つに分かれている。",
        "furigana": "{新|あたら}しい{空港|くうこう}の{建設|けんせつ}をめぐって、{住民|じゅうみん}の{意見|いけん}が{二|ふた}つに{分|わ}かれている。",
        "en": "Residents are divided over the construction of a new airport."
      },
      {
        "ja": "父の遺産をめぐって、兄弟の間でもめごとが起きた。",
        "furigana": "{父|ちち}の{遺産|いさん}をめぐって、{兄弟|きょうだい}の{間|あいだ}でもめごとが{起|お}きた。",
        "en": "A dispute broke out between the siblings over their father's inheritance."
      },
      {
        "ja": "首相の発言をめぐる議論は、今も続いている。",
        "furigana": "{首相|しゅしょう}の{発言|はつげん}をめぐる{議論|ぎろん}は、{今|いま}も{続|つづ}いている。",
        "en": "The debate surrounding the prime minister's remarks is still going on."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "topic",
      "relation"
    ],
    "notes": "The verb that follows is about debate, conflict or competition (議論する, 対立する, 争う). Unlike 〜について, it isn't used for simply explaining a topic.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "81fa749e0327146b8c6e87fbb70c6b5c3cc01d32cac450194ec521af5ed987dd",
      "meanings": [
        "围绕",
        "就……"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋をめぐって／をめぐる＋名词",
      "explanation": "表示围绕某个问题发生讨论、争执或竞争。",
      "notes": "常接議論、対立等表达。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "新しい空港の建設をめぐって、住民の意見が二つに分かれている。",
          "zh": "围绕新机场建设，居民意见分成两派。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "父の遺産をめぐって、兄弟の間でもめごとが起きた。",
          "zh": "兄弟之间因父亲的遗产发生了纠纷。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "首相の発言をめぐる議論は、今も続いている。",
          "zh": "围绕首相发言的讨论至今仍在继续。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#o-megutte",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "37e622e45e97dde9b7da8f016ef7ad38ade29d0f08d047b924cda6e86820ce19"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "o-tsuujite-o-tooshite",
    "pattern": "〜を通じて / 〜を通して",
    "reading": "〜をつうじて / 〜をとおして",
    "romaji": "o tsuujite / o tooshite",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "through; via; by way of; throughout (a period)",
    "formation": "Noun + を通じて / Noun + を通して",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "共通の友人を通じて、今の妻と知り合った。",
        "furigana": "{共通|きょうつう}の{友人|ゆうじん}を{通|つう}じて、{今|いま}の{妻|つま}と{知|し}り{合|あ}った。",
        "en": "I got to know my wife through a mutual friend."
      },
      {
        "ja": "ボランティア活動を通して、地域の人々とのつながりが深まった。",
        "furigana": "ボランティア{活動|かつどう}を{通|とお}して、{地域|ちいき}の{人々|ひとびと}とのつながりが{深|ふか}まった。",
        "en": "Through volunteer work, my ties with people in the community grew stronger."
      },
      {
        "ja": "この地域は一年を通じて雨が少ない。",
        "furigana": "この{地域|ちいき}は{一|いち}{年|ねん}を{通|つう}じて{雨|あめ}が{少|すく}ない。",
        "en": "This region gets little rain throughout the year."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "means",
      "time"
    ],
    "notes": "Largely interchangeable. 〜を通して tends to stress a deliberate process or experience; 〜を通じて is a little more formal and common with media, contacts and periods (一年を通じて).",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "b8f547d99901b57b43df36630a84fedf144cf34d3057f4f629af2cc1c9b36eb1",
      "meanings": [
        "通过",
        "在整个……期间"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋を通じて／を通して",
      "explanation": "表示媒介、经历或贯穿整个期间。",
      "notes": "两种形式大多可互换；を通じて较正式。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "共通の友人を通じて、今の妻と知り合った。",
          "zh": "我通过共同的朋友认识了现在的妻子。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "ボランティア活動を通して、地域の人々とのつながりが深まった。",
          "zh": "通过志愿者活动，我和当地居民的联系加深了。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "この地域は一年を通じて雨が少ない。",
          "zh": "这个地区全年雨水少。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#o-tsuujite-o-tooshite",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "ddfd81079e0e8b8a8a289847dd51d0cc23c13c41bc7acd65927a386acb64e4f9"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "o-kikkake-ni",
    "pattern": "〜をきっかけに",
    "romaji": "o kikkake ni",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "taking the opportunity of; triggered by; with ... as the start",
    "formation": "Noun + をきっかけに / Noun + をきっかけとして / Verb-plain + の + をきっかけに",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "大学時代の留学をきっかけに、国際協力の仕事に興味を持つようになった。",
        "furigana": "{大学|だいがく}{時代|じだい}の{留学|りゅうがく}をきっかけに、{国際|こくさい}{協力|きょうりょく}の{仕事|しごと}に{興味|きょうみ}を{持|も}つようになった。",
        "en": "Studying abroad in college got me interested in international cooperation work."
      },
      {
        "ja": "引っ越したのをきっかけに、家具をすべて買い替えた。",
        "furigana": "{引|ひ}っ{越|こ}したのをきっかけに、{家具|かぐ}をすべて{買|か}い{替|か}えた。",
        "en": "I took the move as a chance to replace all my furniture."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "reason",
      "change"
    ],
    "notes": "Marks an event that led to a new start or change. The formal equivalent 〜を契機に is common in writing.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "42997c9b14cc9b0411b50b72ed5782aa1b918b7267cac7f62b9ea155c667fe82",
      "meanings": [
        "以……为契机"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋をきっかけに／をきっかけとして；动词普通形＋のをきっかけに",
      "explanation": "表示某事促成新的开始或变化。",
      "notes": "书面表达也可用を契機に。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "大学時代の留学をきっかけに、国際協力の仕事に興味を持つようになった。",
          "zh": "以大学时代的留学为契机，我开始对国际合作工作感兴趣。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "引っ越したのをきっかけに、家具をすべて買い替えた。",
          "zh": "以搬家为契机，我把家具全换了。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#o-kikkake-ni",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "dc7c37ae79576d2ee290bfbfd022c5d8b790975e478e08f7f18e389edcea14cb"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "o-nozoite",
    "pattern": "〜を除いて",
    "reading": "〜をのぞいて",
    "romaji": "o nozoite",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "except; excluding; apart from",
    "formation": "Noun + を除いて / Noun + を除き / Noun + を除く + Noun",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "年末年始を除いて、図書館は毎日開いている。",
        "furigana": "{年末年始|ねんまつねんし}を{除|のぞ}いて、{図書館|としょかん}は{毎日|まいにち}{開|あ}いている。",
        "en": "The library is open every day except during the New Year holidays."
      },
      {
        "ja": "一部の地域を除き、明日は全国的に晴れるでしょう。",
        "furigana": "{一部|いちぶ}の{地域|ちいき}を{除|のぞ}き、{明日|あした}は{全国|ぜんこく}{的|てき}に{晴|は}れるでしょう。",
        "en": "Except for some areas, it will be sunny nationwide tomorrow."
      },
      {
        "ja": "この件について知っているのは、私を除いて三人しかいない。",
        "furigana": "この{件|けん}について{知|し}っているのは、{私|わたし}を{除|のぞ}いて{三|さん}{人|にん}しかいない。",
        "en": "Apart from me, only three people know about this."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "exclusion",
      "formal"
    ],
    "notes": "More formal than 〜以外. 〜を除き is the written form.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "d1114b12e3081dd2a37133e1eeaf1cedfb68bd862ab81adb8fe7ec0b49d9944d",
      "meanings": [
        "除……之外",
        "不包括"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋を除いて／を除き／を除く＋名词",
      "explanation": "从整体中排除某一部分。",
      "notes": "を除き较书面。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "年末年始を除いて、図書館は毎日開いている。",
          "zh": "除年末年初外，图书馆每天开放。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "一部の地域を除き、明日は全国的に晴れるでしょう。",
          "zh": "除部分地区外，明天全国大部分地区晴朗。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "この件について知っているのは、私を除いて三人しかいない。",
          "zh": "知道这件事的人除我之外只有三个。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#o-nozoite",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "a426e1ed72b9607b381edf5a5ccfde02234667288ea6ecbfc28132d90281e7d1"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ka-no-you-da",
    "pattern": "〜かのようだ",
    "romaji": "ka no you da",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "as if; as though (when it isn't really so)",
    "formation": "Verb-plain / i-Adj + かのようだ / na-Adj + である + かのようだ / Noun + である + かのようだ",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "彼はまるで何も知らないかのような顔をしていた。",
        "furigana": "{彼|かれ}はまるで{何|なに}も{知|し}らないかのような{顔|かお}をしていた。",
        "en": "He wore a look as if he knew nothing at all."
      },
      {
        "ja": "三月なのに、真冬に戻ったかのような寒さだ。",
        "furigana": "{三月|さんがつ}なのに、{真冬|まふゆ}に{戻|もど}ったかのような{寒|さむ}さだ。",
        "en": "It's March, yet it's so cold it feels as if we'd gone back to midwinter."
      },
      {
        "ja": "その記者は、うわさをまるで事実であるかのように報じた。",
        "furigana": "その{記者|きしゃ}は、うわさをまるで{事実|じじつ}であるかのように{報|ほう}じた。",
        "en": "The reporter reported the rumor as though it were fact."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "appearance",
      "written"
    ],
    "notes": "More literary than 〜ようだ and clearly signals that the comparison is not literally true. Often paired with まるで. Also 〜かのように / 〜かのような.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "39f52b954fcb4e4ac3fb24b61ea309acf821a121f7adfb51bb94c816cbe089ce",
      "meanings": [
        "仿佛",
        "好像"
      ],
      "formation": "动词・い形容词普通形＋かのようだ；な形容词・名词＋である＋かのようだ",
      "explanation": "表示与实际不同或并非确定事实的比喻。",
      "notes": "常与まるで呼应；较ようだ书面。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "彼はまるで何も知らないかのような顔をしていた。",
          "zh": "他摆出一副仿佛什么都不知道的表情。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "三月なのに、真冬に戻ったかのような寒さだ。",
          "zh": "虽然是三月，却冷得像回到了严冬。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "その記者は、うわさをまるで事実であるかのように報じた。",
          "zh": "那位记者把传闻报道得仿佛是事实。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ka-no-you-da",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "a5a4b6b0eb3718f9d6c229fbe3bc8f98feeebb22638e3bcb6bc307a9be67f10d"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "kanenai",
    "pattern": "〜かねない",
    "romaji": "kanenai",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "could well; might (lead to something bad)",
    "formation": "Verb-stem + かねない",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "そんな無理な運転をしていたら、大事故を起こしかねない。",
        "furigana": "そんな{無理|むり}な{運転|うんてん}をしていたら、{大|だい}{事故|じこ}を{起|お}こしかねない。",
        "en": "If you keep driving that recklessly, you could end up causing a serious accident."
      },
      {
        "ja": "不用意な一言が、会社の信用を失うことにつながりかねない。",
        "furigana": "{不用意|ふようい}な{一言|ひとこと}が、{会社|かいしゃ}の{信用|しんよう}を{失|うしな}うことにつながりかねない。",
        "en": "A careless remark could end up costing the company its credibility."
      },
      {
        "ja": "あの人なら、平気でうそをつきかねない。",
        "furigana": "あの{人|ひと}なら、{平気|へいき}でうそをつきかねない。",
        "en": "He's just the kind of person who might lie without batting an eye."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "possibility",
      "conjecture"
    ],
    "notes": "Only for undesirable outcomes. Despite the ない, the meaning is positive: 'there's a real risk that ...'. Don't confuse with 〜かねる (cannot).",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "3b8831ac939ff0401b11b615fad189f990f041799131a0d73b351b6094a1699b",
      "meanings": [
        "很可能（发生坏事）"
      ],
      "formation": "动词ます形去ます＋かねない",
      "explanation": "表示存在发生不良结果的可能性。",
      "notes": "虽然含ない，但整个表达是肯定的风险判断。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "そんな無理な運転をしていたら、大事故を起こしかねない。",
          "zh": "那样冒险开车，很可能引发重大事故。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "不用意な一言が、会社の信用を失うことにつながりかねない。",
          "zh": "一句不慎的话可能导致公司失去信誉。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "あの人なら、平気でうそをつきかねない。",
          "zh": "那个人的话，完全可能若无其事地撒谎。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#kanenai",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "37669c45099364c5e4f4d3914207dfa154fe76873883cb8854fdd5524087efe8"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "kaneru",
    "pattern": "〜かねる",
    "romaji": "kaneru",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "cannot; be unable to (polite refusal); find it hard to",
    "formation": "Verb-stem + かねる",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "申し訳ございませんが、そのご質問にはお答えしかねます。",
        "furigana": "{申|もう}し{訳|わけ}ございませんが、そのご{質問|しつもん}にはお{答|こた}えしかねます。",
        "en": "I'm very sorry, but I'm unable to answer that question."
      },
      {
        "ja": "個人情報に関するお問い合わせには、お電話では対応いたしかねます。",
        "furigana": "{個人|こじん}{情報|じょうほう}に{関|かん}するお{問|と}い{合|あ}わせには、お{電話|でんわ}では{対応|たいおう}いたしかねます。",
        "en": "We are unable to respond to inquiries about personal information by phone."
      },
      {
        "ja": "彼のやり方には、どうしても賛成しかねる。",
        "furigana": "{彼|かれ}のやり{方|かた}には、どうしても{賛成|さんせい}しかねる。",
        "en": "I just can't bring myself to agree with his methods."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "ability",
      "politeness",
      "formal"
    ],
    "notes": "A soft, formal way to decline, very common in customer service. It expresses reluctance or difficulty for the speaker, not physical inability.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "23245036006a5ae8eab49f83f87fca973334d45f8292af49b3a7b9f965f431d4",
      "meanings": [
        "难以",
        "无法（委婉拒绝）"
      ],
      "formation": "动词ます形去ます＋かねる",
      "explanation": "委婉而正式地表示难以接受或处理。",
      "notes": "常用于客服或正式拒绝，并非单纯的身体能力不足。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "申し訳ございませんが、そのご質問にはお答えしかねます。",
          "zh": "很抱歉，您的问题我无法回答。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "個人情報に関するお問い合わせには、お電話では対応いたしかねます。",
          "zh": "关于个人信息的咨询，我们无法通过电话处理。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "彼のやり方には、どうしても賛成しかねる。",
          "zh": "我实在难以赞同他的做法。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#kaneru",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "39c76ea4570cf34713f706dc8f2bf40dd91b2357780a832b573ee79d7e055cdc"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "zu-ni-wa-irarenai",
    "pattern": "〜ずにはいられない",
    "romaji": "zu ni wa irarenai",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "can't help doing; can't resist doing",
    "formation": "Verb-nai stem + ずにはいられない",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "あまりにひどいニュースに、怒りを感じずにはいられなかった。",
        "furigana": "あまりにひどいニュースに、{怒|いか}りを{感|かん}じずにはいられなかった。",
        "en": "I couldn't help feeling angry at such terrible news."
      },
      {
        "ja": "彼女の苦労話を聞いて、泣かずにはいられなかった。",
        "furigana": "{彼女|かのじょ}の{苦労|くろう}{話|ばなし}を{聞|き}いて、{泣|な}かずにはいられなかった。",
        "en": "Hearing about the hardships she'd been through, I couldn't help crying."
      },
      {
        "ja": "このシリーズは、一度読み始めたら最後まで読まずにはいられない。",
        "furigana": "このシリーズは、{一度|いちど}{読|よ}み{始|はじ}めたら{最後|さいご}まで{読|よ}まずにはいられない。",
        "en": "Once you start this series, you can't stop until you've read it to the end."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "emotion",
      "emphasis"
    ],
    "notes": "する becomes せずにはいられない. 〜ないではいられない is a slightly more conversational equivalent. An inner urge, unlike 〜ざるを得ない (forced by circumstances).",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "617624a15c92488e3d4d816ea1f3fef657783aa9ba9e7d74e477fa2ae8faa066",
      "meanings": [
        "忍不住",
        "不能不"
      ],
      "formation": "动词ない形去ない＋ずにはいられない",
      "explanation": "表示出于内心感受而无法抑制某动作。",
      "notes": "する变为せずにはいられない；也可说ないではいられない。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "あまりにひどいニュースに、怒りを感じずにはいられなかった。",
          "zh": "面对如此恶劣的新闻，我忍不住感到愤怒。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "彼女の苦労話を聞いて、泣かずにはいられなかった。",
          "zh": "听了她的辛苦经历，我忍不住哭了。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "このシリーズは、一度読み始めたら最後まで読まずにはいられない。",
          "zh": "这个系列一旦开始读，就忍不住要读到最后。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#zu-ni-wa-irarenai",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "225444faeeb7c068cd362d6e5135d19f53c5f63e38607f543cb35e6cbc8a1b67"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "zaru-o-enai",
    "pattern": "〜ざるを得ない",
    "reading": "〜ざるをえない",
    "romaji": "zaru o enai",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "have no choice but to; cannot help but",
    "formation": "Verb-nai stem + ざるを得ない",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "予算が足りないので、計画を縮小せざるを得ない。",
        "furigana": "{予算|よさん}が{足|た}りないので、{計画|けいかく}を{縮小|しゅくしょう}せざるを{得|え}ない。",
        "en": "The budget is insufficient, so we have no choice but to scale back the plan."
      },
      {
        "ja": "上司の命令だったので、気が進まなくても行かざるを得なかった。",
        "furigana": "{上司|じょうし}の{命令|めいれい}だったので、{気|き}が{進|すす}まなくても{行|い}かざるを{得|え}なかった。",
        "en": "It was my boss's order, so I had to go even though I didn't feel like it."
      },
      {
        "ja": "彼の努力だけは認めざるを得ない。",
        "furigana": "{彼|かれ}の{努力|どりょく}だけは{認|みと}めざるを{得|え}ない。",
        "en": "I have to admit, at least, that he made an effort."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "obligation",
      "formal"
    ],
    "notes": "Circumstances force an action the speaker doesn't really want to take. する becomes せざるを得ない. More formal than 〜しかない.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "283e8a85b1e68d0a6ad2f7770d9cfe32e0924bbde7567a0faac5e446ee08cf75",
      "meanings": [
        "不得不",
        "只得"
      ],
      "formation": "动词ない形去ない＋ざるを得ない",
      "explanation": "因外部情况而不得不采取某行动。",
      "notes": "する变为せざるを得ない；语气较正式。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "予算が足りないので、計画を縮小せざるを得ない。",
          "zh": "由于预算不足，不得不缩小计划。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "上司の命令だったので、気が進まなくても行かざるを得なかった。",
          "zh": "因为是上司的命令，即使不愿意也不得不去。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "彼の努力だけは認めざるを得ない。",
          "zh": "至少不得不承认他的努力。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#zaru-o-enai",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "5bc495330f38dfd475b082892c25f9e8cdca5491790c9bef42bfbd351523c4e8"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "te-wa-irarenai",
    "pattern": "〜てはいられない",
    "romaji": "te wa irarenai",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "can't afford to (keep) doing; can't just",
    "formation": "Verb-te + はいられない",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "締め切りが迫っているので、のんびりしてはいられない。",
        "furigana": "{締|し}め{切|き}りが{迫|せま}っているので、のんびりしてはいられない。",
        "en": "The deadline is approaching, so I can't afford to take it easy."
      },
      {
        "ja": "困っている人を見ると、黙ってはいられない性格だ。",
        "furigana": "{困|こま}っている{人|ひと}を{見|み}ると、{黙|だま}ってはいられない{性格|せいかく}だ。",
        "en": "I'm the type who can't stay quiet when I see someone in trouble."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "negation",
      "necessity"
    ],
    "notes": "The situation doesn't allow one to stay in state A, so one feels pushed to act. Casual: 〜ちゃいられない / 〜てらんない.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "a136934f033b2a1140c9715223e0bc7671397b1ae5b00f58183fddd7e82e1e98",
      "meanings": [
        "不能再……下去"
      ],
      "formation": "动词て形＋はいられない",
      "explanation": "表示处境不允许继续保持某状态。",
      "notes": "口语可说ちゃいられない。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "締め切りが迫っているので、のんびりしてはいられない。",
          "zh": "截止日期迫近，不能再悠闲下去了。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "困っている人を見ると、黙ってはいられない性格だ。",
          "zh": "我是那种看到别人有困难就不能袖手旁观的人。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#te-wa-irarenai",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "ad76b3c84dab988876f696a3574c310e8b6ce4b50bdad42acf477349bcfb106e"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "mono-ka",
    "pattern": "〜ものか",
    "romaji": "mono ka",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "no way (will I); as if; I'll never",
    "formation": "Verb-dict / i-Adj / na-Adj + な + ものか",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "あんな失礼な店には、二度と行くものか。",
        "furigana": "あんな{失礼|しつれい}な{店|みせ}には、{二度|にど}と{行|い}くものか。",
        "en": "No way am I ever going to that rude shop again."
      },
      {
        "ja": "一度や二度失敗したくらいで、諦めるもんか。",
        "furigana": "{一|いち}{度|ど}や{二|に}{度|ど}{失敗|しっぱい}したくらいで、{諦|あきら}めるもんか。",
        "en": "As if I'd give up just because I failed once or twice."
      },
      {
        "ja": "あの人の気持ちなんて、君に分かるものか。",
        "furigana": "あの{人|ひと}の{気持|きも}ちなんて、{君|きみ}に{分|わ}かるものか。",
        "en": "As if you could understand how she feels."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "negation",
      "emphasis",
      "emotion"
    ],
    "notes": "Strong emotional denial or refusal; not a real question. Conversational form: 〜もんか; polite/feminine: 〜ものですか.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "a8c0869377a66ac37c2d6c5971deb9abf2db1a8c9bfdd479494ea4d7527d5e47",
      "meanings": [
        "绝不",
        "怎么可能"
      ],
      "formation": "动词辞书形・い形容词普通形＋ものか；な形容词词干＋な＋ものか",
      "explanation": "表示强烈的否定或拒绝。",
      "notes": "口语可说もんか。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "あんな失礼な店には、二度と行くものか。",
          "zh": "那种无礼的店，我绝不会再去了。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "一度や二度失敗したくらいで、諦めるもんか。",
          "zh": "不过失败一两次，我绝不会放弃。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "あの人の気持ちなんて、君に分かるものか。",
          "zh": "那个人的心情，你怎么可能懂？"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#mono-ka",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "e5dfd23b1a85e517d99b16fe8f0a0db25fd268c224ef5cf99d471552924629cf"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "mono-no",
    "pattern": "〜ものの",
    "romaji": "mono no",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "although; even though (but the expected result doesn't follow)",
    "formation": "Verb-plain / i-Adj / na-Adj + な / na-Adj + である / Noun + である + ものの",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "免許は取ったものの、怖くてまだ一度も運転していない。",
        "furigana": "{免許|めんきょ}は{取|と}ったものの、{怖|こわ}くてまだ{一|いち}{度|ど}も{運転|うんてん}していない。",
        "en": "Although I got my license, I'm too scared and still haven't driven once."
      },
      {
        "ja": "新しい制度は導入されたものの、十分に活用されていないのが現状だ。",
        "furigana": "{新|あたら}しい{制度|せいど}は{導入|どうにゅう}されたものの、{十分|じゅうぶん}に{活用|かつよう}されていないのが{現状|げんじょう}だ。",
        "en": "Although the new system has been introduced, the reality is that it isn't being fully used."
      },
      {
        "ja": "この部屋は駅から近いものの、日当たりが悪いのが難点だ。",
        "furigana": "この{部屋|へや}は{駅|えき}から{近|ちか}いものの、{日当|ひあ}たりが{悪|わる}いのが{難点|なんてん}だ。",
        "en": "This apartment is close to the station, but its drawback is that it gets little sunlight."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "concession",
      "written"
    ],
    "notes": "Admits the first fact, then says things didn't go as it would suggest. More written than 〜けれども.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "05c0f4acd3da08c4869ab1532f2b4d7422e39664fbc6888378b8bb708c20acc0",
      "meanings": [
        "虽然",
        "尽管"
      ],
      "formation": "动词・い形容词普通形＋ものの；な形容词词干＋な／である＋ものの；名词＋である＋ものの",
      "explanation": "承认前项事实，再说明结果不如预期。",
      "notes": "比けれども更书面。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "免許は取ったものの、怖くてまだ一度も運転していない。",
          "zh": "虽然拿到了驾照，但因为害怕一次都没开过车。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "新しい制度は導入されたものの、十分に活用されていないのが現状だ。",
          "zh": "新制度虽然引入了，但目前尚未得到充分利用。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "この部屋は駅から近いものの、日当たりが悪いのが難点だ。",
          "zh": "这个房间虽然离车站近，但缺点是采光不好。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#mono-no",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "90a9b5137f8d42cd904c6b45da79b462b2e335ed6c07eb626791f62188ce23eb"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "mono-nara",
    "pattern": "〜ものなら",
    "romaji": "mono nara",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "if (it were possible); if only one could",
    "formation": "Verb-dict (potential form) + ものなら",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "できるものなら、学生時代に戻ってもう一度やり直したい。",
        "furigana": "できるものなら、{学生|がくせい}{時代|じだい}に{戻|もど}ってもう{一度|いちど}やり{直|なお}したい。",
        "en": "If only I could, I'd go back to my student days and do it all over again."
      },
      {
        "ja": "行けるものなら行きたいが、その日はどうしても仕事を休めない。",
        "furigana": "{行|い}けるものなら{行|い}きたいが、その{日|ひ}はどうしても{仕事|しごと}を{休|やす}めない。",
        "en": "I'd go if I could, but I just can't take that day off work."
      },
      {
        "ja": "止められるものなら止めてみろ。",
        "furigana": "{止|と}められるものなら{止|と}めてみろ。",
        "en": "Stop me if you can."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "condition",
      "wish"
    ],
    "notes": "For something hard or impossible to do; the main clause is often 〜たい or a challenge. Don't confuse with N1 〜(よ)うものなら ('if one dared to ..., something bad would happen').",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "a3b628e6751b61149ff947e30fb62e3cb471c96429c5dca78d64f0b1a67fff95",
      "meanings": [
        "如果能……的话"
      ],
      "formation": "动词可能形辞书形＋ものなら",
      "explanation": "表示难以实现的假设愿望，也可用于挑战。",
      "notes": "与表示危险假设的ようものなら不同。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "できるものなら、学生時代に戻ってもう一度やり直したい。",
          "zh": "如果可以，我想回到学生时代重新来过。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "行けるものなら行きたいが、その日はどうしても仕事を休めない。",
          "zh": "如果能去我也想去，但那天实在不能请假。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "止められるものなら止めてみろ。",
          "zh": "你要是能阻止，就试试看。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#mono-nara",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "904cee2c257909f73da84dc6a10a167eefc7481da9473a6a46face3c11ab4cff"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "kurai-nara-gurai-nara",
    "pattern": "〜くらいなら / 〜ぐらいなら",
    "romaji": "kurai nara / gurai nara",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "rather than; if it comes to (doing that), I'd rather",
    "formation": "Verb-dict + くらいなら / Verb-dict + ぐらいなら",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "あんな人に頭を下げるくらいなら、会社を辞めたほうがましだ。",
        "furigana": "あんな{人|ひと}に{頭|あたま}を{下|さ}げるくらいなら、{会社|かいしゃ}を{辞|や}めたほうがましだ。",
        "en": "I'd rather quit my job than bow my head to someone like him."
      },
      {
        "ja": "途中で投げ出すぐらいなら、最初から引き受けないほうがいい。",
        "furigana": "{途中|とちゅう}で{投|な}げ{出|だ}すぐらいなら、{最初|さいしょ}から{引|ひ}き{受|う}けないほうがいい。",
        "en": "If you're going to give up halfway, it's better not to take it on in the first place."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "comparison",
      "condition"
    ],
    "notes": "A is something the speaker strongly dislikes; B is the lesser evil or better choice, often with 〜ほうがいい / 〜ほうがましだ.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "5f080fa58b8a1986208edc92445a959bbb309bcc0c5ffe423e0cce46c9b7d602",
      "meanings": [
        "与其……不如"
      ],
      "formation": "动词辞书形＋くらいなら／ぐらいなら",
      "explanation": "表示与其做讨厌的事，不如选择另一做法。",
      "notes": "后项常用ほうがいい或ほうがましだ。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "あんな人に頭を下げるくらいなら、会社を辞めたほうがましだ。",
          "zh": "与其向那种人低头，不如辞职。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "途中で投げ出すぐらいなら、最初から引き受けないほうがいい。",
          "zh": "与其中途放弃，不如一开始就不要接下来。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#kurai-nara-gurai-nara",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "4f44bb3800fb7ccfc3891e706a0c4e771063c38e503132e6628d7346b009b815"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "mono-ga-aru",
    "pattern": "〜ものがある",
    "romaji": "mono ga aru",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "there is something (about it that is) ...; it really is",
    "formation": "Verb-dict / i-Adj / na-Adj + な + ものがある",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "この画家の初期の作品には、見る人の心を強く打つものがある。",
        "furigana": "この{画家|がか}の{初期|しょき}の{作品|さくひん}には、{見|み}る{人|ひと}の{心|こころ}を{強|つよ}く{打|う}つものがある。",
        "en": "There is something in this painter's early works that deeply moves the viewer."
      },
      {
        "ja": "毎日二時間かけて通勤するのは、正直つらいものがある。",
        "furigana": "{毎日|まいにち}{二|に}{時間|じかん}かけて{通勤|つうきん}するのは、{正直|しょうじき}つらいものがある。",
        "en": "Honestly, commuting two hours every day is pretty tough."
      },
      {
        "ja": "若い選手たちの成長ぶりには、目を見張るものがある。",
        "furigana": "{若|わか}い{選手|せんしゅ}たちの{成長|せいちょう}ぶりには、{目|め}を{見張|みは}るものがある。",
        "en": "The progress of the young players is truly remarkable."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "emotion",
      "emphasis"
    ],
    "notes": "Expresses the speaker's strong impression of a quality sensed in something. It's an evaluation, not a statement about literal existence.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "0092611087274d6285f6907e7b7ae4cf810fae27ad2ed7d5c5133e4d2efa513d",
      "meanings": [
        "有令人……之处",
        "确实……"
      ],
      "formation": "动词辞书形・い形容词普通形＋ものがある；な形容词词干＋な＋ものがある",
      "explanation": "表示说话人对某种性质的强烈感受或评价。",
      "notes": "不是单纯表示物体存在。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "この画家の初期の作品には、見る人の心を強く打つものがある。",
          "zh": "这位画家的早期作品有强烈打动人心的力量。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "毎日二時間かけて通勤するのは、正直つらいものがある。",
          "zh": "每天花两小时通勤，老实说很辛苦。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "若い選手たちの成長ぶりには、目を見張るものがある。",
          "zh": "年轻选手的成长令人瞩目。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#mono-ga-aru",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "434950e376c49970f0925ea92aa9257b34dc20d9ecf2e64215eb4237850911d6"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "koto-ka",
    "pattern": "〜ことか",
    "romaji": "koto ka",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "how ...!; how much ...!",
    "formation": "Question word + … + Verb-plain / i-Adj / na-Adj + な + ことか",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "この日が来るのを、どれほど待ち望んだことか。",
        "furigana": "この{日|ひ}が{来|く}るのを、どれほど{待|ま}ち{望|のぞ}んだことか。",
        "en": "How long I've waited for this day to come!"
      },
      {
        "ja": "一人暮らしを始めて、家族のありがたさを何度感じたことか。",
        "furigana": "{一人暮|ひとりぐ}らしを{始|はじ}めて、{家族|かぞく}のありがたさを{何|なん}{度|ど}{感|かん}じたことか。",
        "en": "Since I started living alone, I can't count how many times I've felt grateful for my family."
      },
      {
        "ja": "無事だと聞いて、どんなに安心したことか。",
        "furigana": "{無事|ぶじ}だと{聞|き}いて、どんなに{安心|あんしん}したことか。",
        "en": "What a relief it was to hear you were safe!"
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "exclamation",
      "emotion",
      "emphasis"
    ],
    "notes": "Usually paired with どんなに, どれほど, 何度, etc. Not a real question; it conveys deep feeling. Slightly written or dramatic in tone.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "2d2e5922224de28814c0c911b9d399df7a14f4f1bf36aef423cf29c04034807f",
      "meanings": [
        "多么……啊",
        "多少次……啊"
      ],
      "formation": "疑问词＋动词・い形容词普通形＋ことか；疑问词＋な形容词词干＋な＋ことか",
      "explanation": "通过疑问词表达强烈感情，而非真正提问。",
      "notes": "常与どれほど、何度等搭配。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "この日が来るのを、どれほど待ち望んだことか。",
          "zh": "我多么盼望这一天到来啊。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "一人暮らしを始めて、家族のありがたさを何度感じたことか。",
          "zh": "开始独居后，我多少次感受到家人的可贵啊。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "無事だと聞いて、どんなに安心したことか。",
          "zh": "听说平安无事，我多么安心啊。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#koto-ka",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "384b95522debfcb03f3b64ee9b7e5e80dea7932f1367de589fb79fe0a22646fd"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "koto-ni-wa",
    "pattern": "〜ことに（は）",
    "romaji": "koto ni wa",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "(emotion)-ly; what is (surprising, sad, etc.) is that",
    "formation": "Verb-ta / i-Adj / na-Adj + な + ことに（は）",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "驚いたことに、彼は会社を辞めてパン屋を開いたそうだ。",
        "furigana": "{驚|おどろ}いたことに、{彼|かれ}は{会社|かいしゃ}を{辞|や}めてパン{屋|や}を{開|ひら}いたそうだ。",
        "en": "Surprisingly, I heard he quit his company and opened a bakery."
      },
      {
        "ja": "残念なことに、その美しい建物は来月取り壊されることになった。",
        "furigana": "{残念|ざんねん}なことに、その{美|うつく}しい{建物|たてもの}は{来月|らいげつ}{取|と}り{壊|こわ}されることになった。",
        "en": "Sadly, it has been decided that the beautiful building will be torn down next month."
      },
      {
        "ja": "うれしいことには、応募作品が予想の倍以上も集まった。",
        "furigana": "うれしいことには、{応募|おうぼ}{作品|さくひん}が{予想|よそう}の{倍|ばい}{以上|いじょう}も{集|あつ}まった。",
        "en": "To our delight, we received more than twice as many entries as expected."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "emotion",
      "written"
    ],
    "notes": "An emotion word (驚いた, 残念な, うれしい, 不思議な) states the speaker's feeling before giving the fact. Fairly written.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "fab6af36a2d26a703b06178035fb506b63e8a399efb85bf75198126fe0518965",
      "meanings": [
        "令人……的是"
      ],
      "formation": "动词た形・い形容词普通形＋ことに（は）；な形容词词干＋な＋ことに（は）",
      "explanation": "先表达说话人的感受，再叙述事实。",
      "notes": "常接驚いた、残念な、うれしい等。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "驚いたことに、彼は会社を辞めてパン屋を開いたそうだ。",
          "zh": "令人惊讶的是，听说他辞职开了面包店。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "残念なことに、その美しい建物は来月取り壊されることになった。",
          "zh": "遗憾的是，那座美丽的建筑将于下个月拆除。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "うれしいことには、応募作品が予想の倍以上も集まった。",
          "zh": "令人高兴的是，收到的投稿达到了预期的两倍以上。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#koto-ni-wa",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "75fef77ce25197e86a3b34eb8d1ad7b7a9edfccc15fc8e1b95f7c381aecd88b9"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "koto-dakara",
    "pattern": "〜ことだから",
    "romaji": "koto dakara",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "knowing (someone); since it's (someone), surely",
    "formation": "Noun + の + ことだから",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "几帳面な彼のことだから、書類はもう準備してあるだろう。",
        "furigana": "{几帳面|きちょうめん}な{彼|かれ}のことだから、{書類|しょるい}はもう{準備|じゅんび}してあるだろう。",
        "en": "Knowing how meticulous he is, he's probably got the documents ready already."
      },
      {
        "ja": "あの子のことだから、きっとどこかで寄り道をしているんだよ。",
        "furigana": "あの{子|こ}のことだから、きっとどこかで{寄|よ}り{道|みち}をしているんだよ。",
        "en": "Knowing that kid, I bet they've stopped off somewhere on the way."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "reason",
      "conjecture"
    ],
    "notes": "From what the speaker knows of a person's character, it leads to a guess about their behavior. Usually followed by だろう, きっと or に違いない.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "7ddbae2232ab9b265ff5042e16926a3563176a57328df5a175aa76a7a4efdb35",
      "meanings": [
        "以……的性格",
        "既然是……"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋の＋ことだから",
      "explanation": "根据对某人性格的了解推测其行为。",
      "notes": "后项常用きっと、だろう等。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "几帳面な彼のことだから、書類はもう準備してあるだろう。",
          "zh": "他那么认真，文件大概已经准备好了。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "あの子のことだから、きっとどこかで寄り道をしているんだよ。",
          "zh": "以那孩子的性格，一定是在什么地方绕路玩去了。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#koto-dakara",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "1e09e90203fafb5c9c79d58fad094d70dc4ecb6138620a924aa1a4b706ec7023"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "koto-naku",
    "pattern": "〜ことなく",
    "romaji": "koto naku",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "without (doing); without ever",
    "formation": "Verb-dict + ことなく",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "彼は三十年間、一日も休むことなく店を開け続けた。",
        "furigana": "{彼|かれ}は{三|さん}{十|じゅう}{年間|ねんかん}、{一|いち}{日|にち}も{休|やす}むことなく{店|みせ}を{開|あ}け{続|つづ}けた。",
        "en": "For thirty years, he kept his shop open without taking a single day off."
      },
      {
        "ja": "失敗を恐れることなく、新しいことに挑戦してほしい。",
        "furigana": "{失敗|しっぱい}を{恐|おそ}れることなく、{新|あたら}しいことに{挑戦|ちょうせん}してほしい。",
        "en": "I want you to take on new challenges without fearing failure."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "negation",
      "manner",
      "written"
    ],
    "notes": "A written equivalent of 〜ないで / 〜ずに, often implying that something one might expect to happen did not.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "5e59cca0e12a331497ebd6ba4312cce2f794f3bbce392ddef416425af19448a3",
      "meanings": [
        "不……",
        "没有……"
      ],
      "formation": "动词辞书形＋ことなく",
      "explanation": "表示不做某事而持续另一动作。",
      "notes": "较ないで、ずに书面。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "彼は三十年間、一日も休むことなく店を開け続けた。",
          "zh": "他三十年来一天也没休息地持续开店。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "失敗を恐れることなく、新しいことに挑戦してほしい。",
          "zh": "希望你不怕失败，勇于尝试新事物。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#koto-naku",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "e355dc60d069891445404296bb3462e2219b7e3f9c92664c08e76c85959d5406"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "koto-kara",
    "pattern": "〜ことから",
    "romaji": "koto kara",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "from the fact that; because; judging from",
    "formation": "Verb-plain / i-Adj / na-Adj + な / na-Adj + である / Noun + である + ことから",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "この坂は、昔から桜の名所であることから「桜坂」と呼ばれている。",
        "furigana": "この{坂|さか}は、{昔|むかし}から{桜|さくら}の{名所|めいしょ}であることから「{桜|さくら}{坂|ざか}」と{呼|よ}ばれている。",
        "en": "This slope is called 'Sakura-zaka' because it has long been a famous spot for cherry blossoms."
      },
      {
        "ja": "現場に靴の跡が残っていたことから、犯人は外から侵入したと考えられる。",
        "furigana": "{現場|げんば}に{靴|くつ}の{跡|あと}が{残|のこ}っていたことから、{犯人|はんにん}は{外|そと}から{侵入|しんにゅう}したと{考|かんが}えられる。",
        "en": "Given the footprints left at the scene, the culprit is thought to have entered from outside."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "reason",
      "written"
    ],
    "notes": "Gives the evidence or origin behind a name, judgment or conclusion. Common in explanations of place names and in reports.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "1399419647ea127a0d5df7d2161fa197ea0e7c12e35a83097c5b61979cb7e7a4",
      "meanings": [
        "由于",
        "根据……这一事实"
      ],
      "formation": "动词・い形容词普通形＋ことから；な形容词词干＋な／である＋ことから；名词＋である＋ことから",
      "explanation": "给出名称、判断或结论的依据。",
      "notes": "常见于说明地名来源和报道。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "この坂は、昔から桜の名所であることから「桜坂」と呼ばれている。",
          "zh": "这条坡道因自古就是赏樱名胜，被称为“樱坂”。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "現場に靴の跡が残っていたことから、犯人は外から侵入したと考えられる。",
          "zh": "由于现场留下了鞋印，可以推断犯人从外部进入。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#koto-kara",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "f8ea06ef1628eaeb3d57fdcfbd4ffec07e180ffe3cc2057ed0f377ae0f005aaf"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "nai-koto-ni-wa",
    "pattern": "〜ないことには",
    "romaji": "nai koto ni wa",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "unless; if ... not (then it can't happen)",
    "formation": "Verb-nai / i-Adj-ku + ない / na-Adj + でない / Noun + でない + ことには",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "実際に会って話してみないことには、どんな人か分からない。",
        "furigana": "{実際|じっさい}に{会|あ}って{話|はな}してみないことには、どんな{人|ひと}か{分|わ}からない。",
        "en": "You can't tell what someone is like unless you actually meet and talk to them."
      },
      {
        "ja": "社長の許可が出ないことには、このプロジェクトは始められない。",
        "furigana": "{社長|しゃちょう}の{許可|きょか}が{出|で}ないことには、このプロジェクトは{始|はじ}められない。",
        "en": "We can't start this project unless the president gives permission."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "condition",
      "negation"
    ],
    "notes": "The main clause is negative (分からない, できない, 始まらない): without A, B can't happen. More emphatic than 〜なければ.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "8f3b05be66b3036480bf6980b19235d9ace64bc08890aeed3f3695e777e1f2ee",
      "meanings": [
        "如果不……就不能"
      ],
      "formation": "动词ない形・い形容词くない形＋ことには；な形容词・名词＋でない＋ことには",
      "explanation": "表示没有前项条件，后项就无法成立。",
      "notes": "后项通常是否定，如分からない、できない。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "実際に会って話してみないことには、どんな人か分からない。",
          "zh": "不实际见面交谈，就不知道是怎样的人。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "社長の許可が出ないことには、このプロジェクトは始められない。",
          "zh": "如果没有社长许可，就无法开始这个项目。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#nai-koto-ni-wa",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "01cffd6143fec244c698d82cedfba88f7c851756f861aad151076fa9968b770a"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "koto-wa-ga",
    "pattern": "〜ことは〜が",
    "romaji": "koto wa ... ga",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "it's true that ..., but; (I) do ..., but",
    "formation": "Verb-plain + ことは + Verb-plain + が / i-Adj + ことは + i-Adj + が / na-Adj + な + ことは + na-Adj + だ + が",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "あの映画、見たことは見たけど、途中で寝てしまった。",
        "furigana": "あの{映画|えいが}、{見|み}たことは{見|み}たけど、{途中|とちゅう}で{寝|ね}てしまった。",
        "en": "I did watch that movie, but I fell asleep halfway through."
      },
      {
        "ja": "この部屋は広いことは広いが、駅からかなり遠い。",
        "furigana": "この{部屋|へや}は{広|ひろ}いことは{広|ひろ}いが、{駅|えき}からかなり{遠|とお}い。",
        "en": "This apartment is spacious, sure, but it's quite far from the station."
      },
      {
        "ja": "彼の説明は、分かることは分かるが、納得はできない。",
        "furigana": "{彼|かれ}の{説明|せつめい}は、{分|わ}かることは{分|わ}かるが、{納得|なっとく}はできない。",
        "en": "I do understand his explanation, but I'm not convinced."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "concession",
      "emphasis"
    ],
    "notes": "The same word is repeated to admit something only partly before adding a reservation. けど replaces が in speech.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "5ab34d9030ab1b07eaed2745bece5261cc0c39f1f70e649afddb9d283baf90c3",
      "meanings": [
        "虽然确实……但是"
      ],
      "formation": "动词普通形＋ことは＋同一动词普通形＋が；い形容词＋ことは＋同一形容词＋が；な形容词＋なことは＋词干＋だが",
      "explanation": "先承认某事，再补充限制或保留意见。",
      "notes": "同一个词通常重复；口语可用けど。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "あの映画、見たことは見たけど、途中で寝てしまった。",
          "zh": "那部电影我看是看了，但中途睡着了。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "この部屋は広いことは広いが、駅からかなり遠い。",
          "zh": "这房间大是大，但离车站相当远。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "彼の説明は、分かることは分かるが、納得はできない。",
          "zh": "他的说明我懂是懂，但无法认同。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#koto-wa-ga",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "1ab9eddb55154e927695fa5c29fa57c0af0ad5693d80a2778be27327767b278a"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ageku",
    "pattern": "〜あげく",
    "romaji": "ageku",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "after (a long, troublesome process); in the end",
    "formation": "Verb-ta + あげく / Noun + の + あげく",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "さんざん迷ったあげく、結局どちらも買わなかった。",
        "furigana": "さんざん{迷|まよ}ったあげく、{結局|けっきょく}どちらも{買|か}わなかった。",
        "en": "After agonizing over it for ages, in the end I didn't buy either."
      },
      {
        "ja": "長時間の話し合いのあげく、計画は白紙に戻された。",
        "furigana": "{長時間|ちょうじかん}の{話|はな}し{合|あ}いのあげく、{計画|けいかく}は{白紙|はくし}に{戻|もど}された。",
        "en": "After hours of discussion, the plan was scrapped altogether."
      },
      {
        "ja": "彼は無理を重ねたあげく、体を壊して入院してしまった。",
        "furigana": "{彼|かれ}は{無理|むり}を{重|かさ}ねたあげく、{体|からだ}を{壊|こわ}して{入院|にゅういん}してしまった。",
        "en": "After pushing himself too hard for too long, he ruined his health and ended up in the hospital."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "result",
      "sequence"
    ],
    "notes": "The result is usually negative or disappointing. 〜末(に) is neutral and can end well; あげく stresses frustration. あげくの果てに is an intensified form.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "71c6baea3507560d7709c9a284b85007de2a8111b4cec3c50165dced4612520c",
      "meanings": [
        "折腾之后",
        "最终"
      ],
      "formation": "动词た形＋あげく；名词＋の＋あげく",
      "explanation": "表示经历漫长或费力的过程后得到某种结果。",
      "notes": "结果通常令人失望；末に的结果则可好可坏。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "さんざん迷ったあげく、結局どちらも買わなかった。",
          "zh": "犹豫了半天，最终两个都没买。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "長時間の話し合いのあげく、計画は白紙に戻された。",
          "zh": "经过长时间讨论，计划最终被撤销。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "彼は無理を重ねたあげく、体を壊して入院してしまった。",
          "zh": "他一再勉强自己，结果身体垮了住进医院。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ageku",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "e75f4bc32f2cd94e5ab3464b06a28fd12ca543034596bfe1a6e8ecfa1ed2a05b"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "amari-ni",
    "pattern": "〜あまり（に）",
    "romaji": "amari ni",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "so much that; out of excessive; because of too much",
    "formation": "Verb-dict / Verb-ta / na-Adj + な / Noun + の + あまり（に）",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "彼女は緊張のあまり、スピーチの内容を忘れてしまった。",
        "furigana": "{彼女|かのじょ}は{緊張|きんちょう}のあまり、スピーチの{内容|ないよう}を{忘|わす}れてしまった。",
        "en": "She was so nervous that she forgot what she was going to say in her speech."
      },
      {
        "ja": "子どもの将来を心配するあまり、親が口を出しすぎることがある。",
        "furigana": "{子|こ}どもの{将来|しょうらい}を{心配|しんぱい}するあまり、{親|おや}が{口|くち}を{出|だ}しすぎることがある。",
        "en": "Out of excessive worry for their children's future, parents sometimes interfere too much."
      },
      {
        "ja": "うれしさのあまり、思わず涙が出た。",
        "furigana": "うれしさのあまり、{思|おも}わず{涙|なみだ}が{出|で}た。",
        "en": "I was so happy that tears came to my eyes."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "degree",
      "result",
      "emotion"
    ],
    "notes": "An extreme degree of a feeling or state leads to an unusual, often unwanted result. Mostly with emotion nouns (緊張, 心配, 驚き, 悲しみ).",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "8d709c561757f35be136a6dccebfe309f020b2a1694b05a3635fec21b4b71031",
      "meanings": [
        "因为过于……"
      ],
      "formation": "动词辞书形／た形＋あまり（に）；な形容词词干＋な＋あまり（に）；名词＋の＋あまり（に）",
      "explanation": "表示感情或状态过度导致特别的结果。",
      "notes": "常接紧张、担心、惊讶等感情。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "彼女は緊張のあまり、スピーチの内容を忘れてしまった。",
          "zh": "她太紧张，忘了演讲内容。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "子どもの将来を心配するあまり、親が口を出しすぎることがある。",
          "zh": "父母有时因过于担心孩子的未来而干涉太多。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "うれしさのあまり、思わず涙が出た。",
          "zh": "我高兴得忍不住流下了眼泪。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#amari-ni",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "529a609f662499024bac7f2888c646fed7da285fe0eca90ffc2e81b5daf0845b"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ue-ni",
    "pattern": "〜上（に）",
    "reading": "〜うえ（に）",
    "romaji": "ue ni",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "besides; on top of; in addition to",
    "formation": "Verb-plain / i-Adj / na-Adj + な / Noun + である + 上（に）",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "あのレストランは料理がおいしい上に、値段も手頃だ。",
        "furigana": "あのレストランは{料理|りょうり}がおいしい{上|うえ}に、{値段|ねだん}も{手頃|てごろ}だ。",
        "en": "That restaurant has delicious food, and on top of that, the prices are reasonable."
      },
      {
        "ja": "道に迷った上に、雨まで降ってきた。",
        "furigana": "{道|みち}に{迷|まよ}った{上|うえ}に、{雨|あめ}まで{降|ふ}ってきた。",
        "en": "Not only did we get lost, it started raining too."
      },
      {
        "ja": "彼女は仕事が速い上、ミスもほとんどない。",
        "furigana": "{彼女|かのじょ}は{仕事|しごと}が{速|はや}い{上|うえ}、ミスもほとんどない。",
        "en": "She works fast, and she hardly makes any mistakes either."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "addition"
    ],
    "notes": "Adds a second point of the same kind (good + good, bad + bad). に may be dropped in writing. It isn't normally followed by a command or request.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "35ecfc8e05827dc54daa0131f56a389c57d9e5ee49ca92afd0f4ca249cb6f559",
      "meanings": [
        "而且",
        "加上"
      ],
      "formation": "动词・い形容词普通形＋上（に）；な形容词词干＋な＋上（に）；名词＋である＋上（に）",
      "explanation": "在前项基础上追加同类情况。",
      "notes": "常见于好的情况加好情况，或坏的情况加坏情况。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "あのレストランは料理がおいしい上に、値段も手頃だ。",
          "zh": "那家餐厅饭菜好吃，价格也实惠。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "道に迷った上に、雨まで降ってきた。",
          "zh": "迷了路，还下起雨来。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "彼女は仕事が速い上、ミスもほとんどない。",
          "zh": "她工作快，而且几乎不出错。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ue-ni",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "5fbd714626f0484d72a6fc43aff1d43e73b1bbda078cfbb07f588635d4593511"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ue-de",
    "pattern": "〜上で",
    "reading": "〜うえで",
    "romaji": "ue de",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "after (doing), upon; in (doing), when it comes to",
    "formation": "Verb-ta + 上で / Noun + の + 上で / Verb-dict + 上で",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "家族とよく相談した上で、お返事いたします。",
        "furigana": "{家族|かぞく}とよく{相談|そうだん}した{上|うえ}で、お{返事|へんじ}いたします。",
        "en": "I'll give you my answer after discussing it carefully with my family."
      },
      {
        "ja": "内容を確認した上で、契約書に署名してください。",
        "furigana": "{内容|ないよう}を{確認|かくにん}した{上|うえ}で、{契約|けいやく}{書|しょ}に{署名|しょめい}してください。",
        "en": "Please sign the contract after checking its contents."
      },
      {
        "ja": "外国語を学ぶ上で大切なのは、間違いを恐れないことだ。",
        "furigana": "{外国|がいこく}{語|ご}を{学|まな}ぶ{上|うえ}で{大切|たいせつ}なのは、{間違|まちが}いを{恐|おそ}れないことだ。",
        "en": "What's important in learning a foreign language is not being afraid of mistakes."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "sequence",
      "standpoint"
    ],
    "notes": "Verb-ta + 上で: do A first, then B on that basis. Verb-dict + 上で: 'in the process of / for the purpose of A'. Business writing often shortens it to ご確認の上.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "b8f45c8fe5799b747c6a6ad9e8122f835d87df006470bd91c0f1d1f0afa588af",
      "meanings": [
        "在……之后",
        "在……方面"
      ],
      "formation": "动词た形＋上で；动词辞书形＋上で；名词＋の＋上で",
      "explanation": "表示完成前项后再做后项，或表示做某事的过程中。",
      "notes": "ご確認の上等常用于商务书面语。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "家族とよく相談した上で、お返事いたします。",
          "zh": "我会和家人充分商量后再答复。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "内容を確認した上で、契約書に署名してください。",
          "zh": "请确认内容后在合同上签字。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "外国語を学ぶ上で大切なのは、間違いを恐れないことだ。",
          "zh": "学习外语时重要的是不要害怕犯错。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ue-de",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "16f6b604aa7ff9625a61be40e1da2e29937e69af0caa3de34f668b2369e360ee"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ijou-wa",
    "pattern": "〜以上（は）",
    "reading": "〜いじょう（は）",
    "romaji": "ijou wa",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "since; now that; as long as",
    "formation": "Verb-plain / na-Adj + である / Noun + である + 以上（は）",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "引き受けた以上は、最後まで責任を持ってやり遂げるつもりだ。",
        "furigana": "{引|ひ}き{受|う}けた{以上|いじょう}は、{最後|さいご}まで{責任|せきにん}を{持|も}ってやり{遂|と}げるつもりだ。",
        "en": "Now that I've taken it on, I intend to see it through responsibly to the end."
      },
      {
        "ja": "プロである以上、言い訳は許されない。",
        "furigana": "プロである{以上|いじょう}、{言|い}い{訳|わけ}は{許|ゆる}されない。",
        "en": "As long as you're a professional, excuses aren't acceptable."
      },
      {
        "ja": "証拠がない以上、彼を犯人と決めつけることはできない。",
        "furigana": "{証拠|しょうこ}がない{以上|いじょう}、{彼|かれ}を{犯人|はんにん}と{決|き}めつけることはできない。",
        "en": "Since there's no evidence, we can't conclude that he's the culprit."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "reason",
      "obligation"
    ],
    "notes": "From a given situation, draws an obligation, resolve or firm judgment. Near-synonym of 〜からには; 以上は sounds more formal and logical, からには more like personal resolve.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "78dbe97c5001cb0fef618f656063bc8b4b9dee33c8f0bad10bc60e78a03b3cb3",
      "meanings": [
        "既然",
        "鉴于"
      ],
      "formation": "动词普通形＋以上（は）；な形容词・名词＋である＋以上（は）",
      "explanation": "根据既定情况作出责任、决心或判断。",
      "notes": "比からには更正式。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "引き受けた以上は、最後まで責任を持ってやり遂げるつもりだ。",
          "zh": "既然接下了，我打算负责到底完成它。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "プロである以上、言い訳は許されない。",
          "zh": "既然是专业人士，就不能找借口。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "証拠がない以上、彼を犯人と決めつけることはできない。",
          "zh": "既然没有证据，就不能认定他是犯人。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ijou-wa",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "bdf58333636cc67e30acf82d15145d6706d3c02278639f1e4c3a2ce4b968f6ae"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "kara-ni-wa",
    "pattern": "〜からには",
    "romaji": "kara ni wa",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "now that; since (having done/being ..., one must)",
    "formation": "Verb-plain / Noun + である + からには",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "オリンピックに出るからには、メダルを狙いたい。",
        "furigana": "オリンピックに{出|で}るからには、メダルを{狙|ねら}いたい。",
        "en": "Since I'm competing in the Olympics, I want to go for a medal."
      },
      {
        "ja": "自分で決めたからには、途中で投げ出すわけにはいかない。",
        "furigana": "{自分|じぶん}で{決|き}めたからには、{途中|とちゅう}で{投|な}げ{出|だ}すわけにはいかない。",
        "en": "Since I decided on this myself, I can't just give up halfway."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "reason",
      "intention"
    ],
    "notes": "Expresses resolve: having reached this situation, one should see it through. Often ends with 〜たい, 〜つもりだ, 〜なければならない. Compare 〜以上(は), which is more formal and neutral.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "18b70e4cf41658f6ae8dfd7f044bf6d87a87341a862f8fa570dde9bd3b9d9723",
      "meanings": [
        "既然",
        "既然已经"
      ],
      "formation": "动词普通形＋からには；名词＋である＋からには",
      "explanation": "表示既然处于某种情况，就应坚持到底。",
      "notes": "常接决心或义务表达。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "オリンピックに出るからには、メダルを狙いたい。",
          "zh": "既然参加奥运会，我想争取奖牌。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "自分で決めたからには、途中で投げ出すわけにはいかない。",
          "zh": "既然自己决定了，就不能中途放弃。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#kara-ni-wa",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "3d12c3dbf8f1aa83605ca1053d515c6ca2e41be34275c8f4505bbd9ffbded06e"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "kara-koso",
    "pattern": "〜からこそ",
    "romaji": "kara koso",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "precisely because; it is because ... that",
    "formation": "Verb-plain / i-Adj / na-Adj + だ / Noun + だ + からこそ",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "君のことを思っているからこそ、厳しいことを言うんだ。",
        "furigana": "{君|きみ}のことを{思|おも}っているからこそ、{厳|きび}しいことを{言|い}うんだ。",
        "en": "It's precisely because I care about you that I'm being hard on you."
      },
      {
        "ja": "苦しい時期があったからこそ、今の成功があるのだと思う。",
        "furigana": "{苦|くる}しい{時期|じき}があったからこそ、{今|いま}の{成功|せいこう}があるのだと{思|おも}う。",
        "en": "I think it's precisely because we went through hard times that we're successful now."
      },
      {
        "ja": "小さな会社だからこそできるサービスもある。",
        "furigana": "{小|ちい}さな{会社|かいしゃ}だからこそできるサービスもある。",
        "en": "There are some services we can offer precisely because we're a small company."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "reason",
      "emphasis"
    ],
    "notes": "Stresses that this reason, and no other, is the real one, often a reason the listener wouldn't expect. Frequently ends with 〜のだ.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "c76c220e9bf6579bc2c503b7938a88131f9a4ce555330e4184520678ec374e10",
      "meanings": [
        "正因为"
      ],
      "formation": "动词・い形容词普通形＋からこそ；な形容词・名词＋だ＋からこそ",
      "explanation": "强调前项是关键原因。",
      "notes": "常与のだ呼应。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "君のことを思っているからこそ、厳しいことを言うんだ。",
          "zh": "正因为为你着想，我才说这些严厉的话。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "苦しい時期があったからこそ、今の成功があるのだと思う。",
          "zh": "正因为经历过艰难时期，才有现在的成功。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "小さな会社だからこそできるサービスもある。",
          "zh": "也有正因为公司小才能提供的服务。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#kara-koso",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "33a89e2429ea2cbd629878368703a2e61f255d5b0f37410a1891335cc33d7ea3"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "kara-shite",
    "pattern": "〜からして",
    "romaji": "kara shite",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "judging from; (starting) even with; to begin with",
    "formation": "Noun + からして",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "空の様子からして、午後は雨になりそうだ。",
        "furigana": "{空|そら}の{様子|ようす}からして、{午後|ごご}は{雨|あめ}になりそうだ。",
        "en": "Judging from the look of the sky, it's likely to rain in the afternoon."
      },
      {
        "ja": "あの店は、店員の態度からして感じが悪い。",
        "furigana": "あの{店|みせ}は、{店員|てんいん}の{態度|たいど}からして{感|かん}じが{悪|わる}い。",
        "en": "That shop is unpleasant, starting with the staff's attitude."
      },
      {
        "ja": "彼の話は、最初の前提からして間違っている。",
        "furigana": "{彼|かれ}の{話|はなし}は、{最初|さいしょ}の{前提|ぜんてい}からして{間違|まちが}っている。",
        "en": "His argument is wrong right from its first premise."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "standpoint",
      "emphasis"
    ],
    "notes": "Two uses: 'judging from X' (basis for a guess), and 'even X, let alone the rest', where one example stands for the whole, often critically.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "532ae011da6b9fd60909c6beb2e366b1a09697577c1e78c76f56291fd82bd4d4",
      "meanings": [
        "从……判断",
        "从……就"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋からして",
      "explanation": "以某例子为依据判断整体，或强调连最基本的部分都如此。",
      "notes": "可带批评语气。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "空の様子からして、午後は雨になりそうだ。",
          "zh": "从天空的样子看，下午好像会下雨。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "あの店は、店員の態度からして感じが悪い。",
          "zh": "那家店连店员的态度都让人感觉不好。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "彼の話は、最初の前提からして間違っている。",
          "zh": "他的说法从最初的前提就错了。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#kara-shite",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "c7a50819fc7b85de51f0cc2bd72292b0c9b7ae0e5ed319ba0e72ff34c5875b85"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "kara-suru-to-kara-sureba",
    "pattern": "〜からすると / 〜からすれば",
    "romaji": "kara suru to / kara sureba",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "judging from; from the standpoint of",
    "formation": "Noun + からすると / Noun + からすれば",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "あの話し方からすると、彼は関西の出身だろう。",
        "furigana": "あの{話|はな}し{方|かた}からすると、{彼|かれ}は{関西|かんさい}の{出身|しゅっしん}だろう。",
        "en": "Judging from the way he talks, he's probably from the Kansai area."
      },
      {
        "ja": "親からすれば、子どもはいくつになっても子どもだ。",
        "furigana": "{親|おや}からすれば、{子|こ}どもはいくつになっても{子|こ}どもだ。",
        "en": "From a parent's point of view, children are children no matter how old they get."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "standpoint",
      "conjecture"
    ],
    "notes": "Gives either the evidence for a judgment or the viewpoint of a person. Close to 〜から見ると; unlike 〜からいうと, it can take a person.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "4642c3b03fd1876ee395bb6a75efc2b2064cc376e547fc7fe4493598f9e1c220",
      "meanings": [
        "从……来看",
        "对……来说"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋からすると／からすれば",
      "explanation": "表示判断依据或某人的立场。",
      "notes": "也可用于人的立场。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "あの話し方からすると、彼は関西の出身だろう。",
          "zh": "从他说话的方式看，他大概来自关西。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "親からすれば、子どもはいくつになっても子どもだ。",
          "zh": "对父母来说，孩子无论多大都是孩子。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#kara-suru-to-kara-sureba",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "b07e71b35a2098f6a71ddaefb5e5dc5c0485c7e0eba95ba66cee0c155ef2b9c3"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "kara-miru-to-kara-mireba",
    "pattern": "〜から見ると / 〜から見れば",
    "reading": "〜からみると / 〜からみれば",
    "romaji": "kara miru to / kara mireba",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "from the point of view of; judging from; seen from",
    "formation": "Noun + から見ると / Noun + から見れば",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "外国人から見ると、日本の習慣には不思議なものが多いらしい。",
        "furigana": "{外国|がいこく}{人|じん}から{見|み}ると、{日本|にほん}の{習慣|しゅうかん}には{不思議|ふしぎ}なものが{多|おお}いらしい。",
        "en": "Apparently, from a foreigner's point of view, many Japanese customs seem strange."
      },
      {
        "ja": "今の成績から見れば、第一志望の合格は十分可能だ。",
        "furigana": "{今|いま}の{成績|せいせき}から{見|み}れば、{第|だい}{一|いち}{志望|しぼう}の{合格|ごうかく}は{十分|じゅうぶん}{可能|かのう}だ。",
        "en": "Judging from your current grades, getting into your first-choice school is quite possible."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "standpoint"
    ],
    "notes": "Looks at something from a person's position or from given evidence. 〜から見て and 〜から見ても are also common.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "e4bc660966e98eabfc2942584014a75b03eb3b0aceb9eb2a398378409dca8c27",
      "meanings": [
        "从……来看"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋から見ると／から見れば",
      "explanation": "表示从某人立场或根据某种依据观察。",
      "notes": "也可说から見て。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "外国人から見ると、日本の習慣には不思議なものが多いらしい。",
          "zh": "在外国人看来，日本有很多不可思议的习惯。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "今の成績から見れば、第一志望の合格は十分可能だ。",
          "zh": "从目前的成绩看，考上第一志愿完全有可能。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#kara-miru-to-kara-mireba",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "59d3acd59d6a231830fe927f2a9901296879296443d0a27f6ee6794dc4f60d67"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "kara-iu-to-kara-itte",
    "pattern": "〜からいうと / 〜からいって",
    "romaji": "kara iu to / kara itte",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "in terms of; from the standpoint of; judging by",
    "formation": "Noun + からいうと / Noun + からいって",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "立地からいうと、駅前のマンションのほうが便利だ。",
        "furigana": "{立地|りっち}からいうと、{駅前|えきまえ}のマンションのほうが{便利|べんり}だ。",
        "en": "In terms of location, the apartment in front of the station is more convenient."
      },
      {
        "ja": "これまでの経験からいって、この計画はうまくいかないと思う。",
        "furigana": "これまでの{経験|けいけん}からいって、この{計画|けいかく}はうまくいかないと{思|おも}う。",
        "en": "Judging from past experience, I don't think this plan will work."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "standpoint"
    ],
    "notes": "The noun is a criterion or viewpoint (立場, 経験, 値段), not a person: say 親からすると, not ×親からいうと. 〜からいえば is also used.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "287c0dcdb7ba568fb77f604e9b6ec3f8aee16d0b7b0e65fa0935dd49f4763bde",
      "meanings": [
        "从……方面看",
        "根据"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋からいうと／からいって",
      "explanation": "以某个标准或经验作为判断依据。",
      "notes": "常接立场、经验、价格等。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "立地からいうと、駅前のマンションのほうが便利だ。",
          "zh": "从地段来看，车站前的公寓更方便。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "これまでの経験からいって、この計画はうまくいかないと思う。",
          "zh": "根据以往经验，我认为这个计划不会成功。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#kara-iu-to-kara-itte",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "f63e213d639d2b910d234ac65c673e996b652cebab676b1dd0a4bf9300794376"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "sai-ni",
    "pattern": "〜際（に）",
    "reading": "〜さい（に）",
    "romaji": "sai ni",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "when; at the time of; on the occasion of",
    "formation": "Verb-dict / Verb-ta / Noun + の + 際（に）",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "お降りの際は、お忘れ物のないようご注意ください。",
        "furigana": "お{降|ふ}りの{際|さい}は、お{忘|わす}れ{物|もの}のないようご{注意|ちゅうい}ください。",
        "en": "When getting off, please make sure you don't leave anything behind."
      },
      {
        "ja": "以前京都を訪れた際に、この寺にも立ち寄った。",
        "furigana": "{以前|いぜん}{京都|きょうと}を{訪|おとず}れた{際|さい}に、この{寺|てら}にも{立|た}ち{寄|よ}った。",
        "en": "When I visited Kyoto before, I also stopped by this temple."
      },
      {
        "ja": "パスポートを申請する際には、写真と本人確認書類が必要です。",
        "furigana": "パスポートを{申請|しんせい}する{際|さい}には、{写真|しゃしん}と{本人|ほんにん}{確認|かくにん}{書類|しょるい}が{必要|ひつよう}です。",
        "en": "When you apply for a passport, you need a photo and proof of identity."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "time",
      "formal"
    ],
    "notes": "A formal version of 〜とき, common in announcements and instructions. Unlike 〜に際して, it's fine for everyday occasions.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "c5ed662de219ec5a8a0a0cf926c7287fbbb661481cb28508a85d17f1b463e552",
      "meanings": [
        "在……时",
        "当……之际"
      ],
      "formation": "动词辞书形／た形＋際（に）；名词＋の＋際（に）",
      "explanation": "正式地表示某事发生的时候。",
      "notes": "常用于通知和说明。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "お降りの際は、お忘れ物のないようご注意ください。",
          "zh": "下车时，请注意不要遗忘物品。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "以前京都を訪れた際に、この寺にも立ち寄った。",
          "zh": "以前去京都时，我也顺道参观了这座寺院。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "パスポートを申請する際には、写真と本人確認書類が必要です。",
          "zh": "申请护照时需要照片和身份证明文件。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#sai-ni",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "b6204fea1fe4b0cebe6da3d3e29acf481dc78bfe0af13847a375b8ccbd7fbcee"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "shidai",
    "pattern": "〜次第",
    "reading": "〜しだい",
    "romaji": "shidai",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "as soon as (then immediately)",
    "formation": "Verb-stem + 次第 / Noun + 次第",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "詳しい日程が決まり次第、皆様にご連絡いたします。",
        "furigana": "{詳|くわ}しい{日程|にってい}が{決|き}まり{次第|しだい}、{皆様|みなさま}にご{連絡|れんらく}いたします。",
        "en": "We will contact everyone as soon as the detailed schedule is decided."
      },
      {
        "ja": "資料が届き次第、内容を確認してお返事します。",
        "furigana": "{資料|しりょう}が{届|とど}き{次第|しだい}、{内容|ないよう}を{確認|かくにん}してお{返事|へんじ}します。",
        "en": "As soon as the materials arrive, I'll check them and get back to you."
      },
      {
        "ja": "定員になり次第、受付を締め切らせていただきます。",
        "furigana": "{定員|ていいん}になり{次第|しだい}、{受付|うけつけ}を{締|し}め{切|き}らせていただきます。",
        "en": "Registration will close as soon as capacity is reached."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "time",
      "sequence",
      "formal"
    ],
    "notes": "Formal, for a planned future action that follows right after A (contacting, starting). Not used when the main clause is in the past. Compare 〜次第で (depending on).",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "6136cfd3290eef9deae24c9bbae8915a6e7bb4770e24c5fa657c3c9114e86ebf",
      "meanings": [
        "一……就"
      ],
      "formation": "动词ます形去ます／名词＋次第",
      "explanation": "表示某事一完成，马上进行计划中的下一步。",
      "notes": "较正式，通常用于将来。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "詳しい日程が決まり次第、皆様にご連絡いたします。",
          "zh": "详细日程一确定，就通知各位。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "資料が届き次第、内容を確認してお返事します。",
          "zh": "资料一到，我会确认内容并回复。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "定員になり次第、受付を締め切らせていただきます。",
          "zh": "一达到人数上限就截止报名。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#shidai",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "dcbff339e4cc80fad838b05090a93f9171efea48e3034348db91fc6d833c2347"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "shidai-da-shidai-de",
    "pattern": "〜次第だ / 〜次第で",
    "reading": "〜しだいだ / 〜しだいで",
    "romaji": "shidai da / shidai de",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "depending on; it depends on",
    "formation": "Noun + 次第だ / Noun + 次第で / Noun + 次第では",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "合格できるかどうかは、これからの努力次第だ。",
        "furigana": "{合格|ごうかく}できるかどうかは、これからの{努力|どりょく}{次第|しだい}だ。",
        "en": "Whether you pass depends on your efforts from now on."
      },
      {
        "ja": "天気次第で、明日の予定を変えるかもしれない。",
        "furigana": "{天気|てんき}{次第|しだい}で、{明日|あした}の{予定|よてい}を{変|か}えるかもしれない。",
        "en": "Depending on the weather, we may change tomorrow's plans."
      },
      {
        "ja": "考え方次第では、失敗も貴重な経験になる。",
        "furigana": "{考|かんが}え{方|かた}{次第|しだい}では、{失敗|しっぱい}も{貴重|きちょう}な{経験|けいけん}になる。",
        "en": "Depending on how you look at it, even failure can be a valuable experience."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "condition",
      "relation"
    ],
    "notes": "The outcome is decided by A. 〜次第では points to one possible outcome among several.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "2f5c8838f09ba6055f65e6724f2c6ac1447afb37339d01edb1c19a1bb6def2eb",
      "meanings": [
        "取决于"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋次第だ／次第で／次第では",
      "explanation": "表示结果由前项条件决定。",
      "notes": "次第では可引出多种可能中的一种。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "合格できるかどうかは、これからの努力次第だ。",
          "zh": "能否通过取决于今后的努力。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "天気次第で、明日の予定を変えるかもしれない。",
          "zh": "可能会根据天气改变明天的计划。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "考え方次第では、失敗も貴重な経験になる。",
          "zh": "换个想法，失败也能成为宝贵的经验。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#shidai-da-shidai-de",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "dd62c684e37019713c24a09950c10be6661ff87b71050e38470365f0e778baed"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "sue-ni",
    "pattern": "〜末（に）",
    "reading": "〜すえ（に）",
    "romaji": "sue ni",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "after (a long process of); finally, at the end of",
    "formation": "Verb-ta + 末（に） / Noun + の + 末（に）",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "半年にわたる交渉の末、両社はようやく合意に達した。",
        "furigana": "{半年|はんとし}にわたる{交渉|こうしょう}の{末|すえ}、{両社|りょうしゃ}はようやく{合意|ごうい}に{達|たっ}した。",
        "en": "After six months of negotiations, the two companies finally reached an agreement."
      },
      {
        "ja": "散々悩んだ末に、彼は留学をあきらめることにした。",
        "furigana": "{散々|さんざん}{悩|なや}んだ{末|すえ}に、{彼|かれ}は{留学|りゅうがく}をあきらめることにした。",
        "en": "After much agonizing, he decided to give up studying abroad."
      },
      {
        "ja": "試行錯誤の末に完成したのが、この新しいエンジンだ。",
        "furigana": "{試行錯誤|しこうさくご}の{末|すえ}に{完成|かんせい}したのが、この{新|あたら}しいエンジンだ。",
        "en": "What we finally completed after much trial and error is this new engine."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "result",
      "sequence",
      "written"
    ],
    "notes": "Neutral: the outcome may be good or bad and is often a decision or conclusion. Use 〜あげく when the result is negative or frustrating.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "1784bf9efbf382cfe3d97dbd30dfb61f8e05bde1b3b7b6ad15304155c6241563",
      "meanings": [
        "经过……之后",
        "最终"
      ],
      "formation": "动词た形＋末（に）；名词＋の＋末（に）",
      "explanation": "表示经过长时间努力或思考后的结果。",
      "notes": "结果可好可坏；あげく多用于不良结果。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "半年にわたる交渉の末、両社はようやく合意に達した。",
          "zh": "经过半年的谈判，两家公司终于达成协议。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "散々悩んだ末に、彼は留学をあきらめることにした。",
          "zh": "烦恼了很久之后，他决定放弃留学。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "試行錯誤の末に完成したのが、この新しいエンジンだ。",
          "zh": "经过反复试验最终完成的就是这款新发动机。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#sue-ni",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "35714620bc70aefb67f1909628d5bd8173446706fbd8e3a23a1308e7bf3cb121"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ta-tokoro-de",
    "pattern": "〜たところで",
    "romaji": "ta tokoro de",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "even if (it would be no use); no matter how much",
    "formation": "Verb-ta + ところで",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "今から急いだところで、終電には間に合わないだろう。",
        "furigana": "{今|いま}から{急|いそ}いだところで、{終電|しゅうでん}には{間|ま}に{合|あ}わないだろう。",
        "en": "Even if we hurry now, we probably won't make the last train."
      },
      {
        "ja": "いくら説明したところで、あの人は聞く耳を持たない。",
        "furigana": "いくら{説明|せつめい}したところで、あの{人|ひと}は{聞|き}く{耳|みみ}を{持|も}たない。",
        "en": "No matter how much you explain, he just won't listen."
      },
      {
        "ja": "失敗したところで、失うものは何もない。",
        "furigana": "{失敗|しっぱい}したところで、{失|うしな}うものは{何|なに}もない。",
        "en": "Even if we fail, we have nothing to lose."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "concession",
      "condition"
    ],
    "notes": "The main clause says the effort is useless or the result wouldn't matter much. Often with いくら, どんなに, 今さら. Different from 〜たところ (when I did, I found).",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "5bede37a3f69c3b22e6fb512926df51377dabbad3add912e47901489b6ffd7ba",
      "meanings": [
        "即使……也无济于事"
      ],
      "formation": "动词た形＋ところで",
      "explanation": "表示即使做了某事，也无法改变结果。",
      "notes": "常与いくら、今さら等搭配。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "今から急いだところで、終電には間に合わないだろう。",
          "zh": "现在再赶，恐怕也赶不上末班车。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "いくら説明したところで、あの人は聞く耳を持たない。",
          "zh": "不管解释多少，那个人都听不进去。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "失敗したところで、失うものは何もない。",
          "zh": "即使失败，也没有什么可失去的。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ta-tokoro-de",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "85745bd6b8898e856b34ae88355eba3c8adfb53ee3cf43741f2834fa2a094d7a"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ta-tokoro",
    "pattern": "〜たところ",
    "romaji": "ta tokoro",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "when (I) did ..., (I found that); upon doing",
    "formation": "Verb-ta + ところ",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "駅の窓口で問い合わせたところ、その電車は運休しているとのことだった。",
        "furigana": "{駅|えき}の{窓口|まどぐち}で{問|と}い{合|あ}わせたところ、その{電車|でんしゃ}は{運休|うんきゅう}しているとのことだった。",
        "en": "When I asked at the station window, I was told that the train wasn't running."
      },
      {
        "ja": "試しに新しい肥料を使ってみたところ、トマトがよく育った。",
        "furigana": "{試|ため}しに{新|あたら}しい{肥料|ひりょう}を{使|つか}ってみたところ、トマトがよく{育|そだ}った。",
        "en": "When I tried using a new fertilizer, the tomatoes grew very well."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "sequence",
      "result"
    ],
    "notes": "Reports what turned out after an action, often a discovery. The result is a past fact beyond the speaker's control. More formal than 〜たら.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "d178601795dafc5b19da2ca8c0189331e8c9684485ccf4ae3bb99bfdaad89df0",
      "meanings": [
        "做了之后发现"
      ],
      "formation": "动词た形＋ところ",
      "explanation": "报告进行某动作之后发现的事实。",
      "notes": "比たら更正式。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "駅の窓口で問い合わせたところ、その電車は運休しているとのことだった。",
          "zh": "向车站窗口询问后得知，那趟电车停运了。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "試しに新しい肥料を使ってみたところ、トマトがよく育った。",
          "zh": "试着用了新肥料后，番茄长得很好。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ta-tokoro",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "17f4e5fb139360a9c7e0d881f438217708dfadff8ce3aa6dd08647fe1836239f"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "bakari-ka",
    "pattern": "〜ばかりか",
    "romaji": "bakari ka",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "not only ... but also",
    "formation": "Verb-plain / i-Adj / na-Adj + な / Noun + ばかりか",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "彼は約束の時間に遅れたばかりか、謝りもしなかった。",
        "furigana": "{彼|かれ}は{約束|やくそく}の{時間|じかん}に{遅|おく}れたばかりか、{謝|あやま}りもしなかった。",
        "en": "Not only was he late, he didn't even apologize."
      },
      {
        "ja": "この薬は効果がないばかりか、副作用まであるそうだ。",
        "furigana": "この{薬|くすり}は{効果|こうか}がないばかりか、{副作用|ふくさよう}まであるそうだ。",
        "en": "I hear this medicine not only doesn't work but even has side effects."
      },
      {
        "ja": "その歌手は国内ばかりか、アジア各国でも人気がある。",
        "furigana": "その{歌手|かしゅ}は{国内|こくない}ばかりか、アジア{各国|かっこく}でも{人気|にんき}がある。",
        "en": "That singer is popular not only in Japan but all over Asia."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "addition",
      "emphasis"
    ],
    "notes": "Stronger than 〜だけでなく; the second item is often more surprising and marked by も, まで or さえ. Unlike 〜だけでなく, it isn't followed by commands or requests.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "73c1eb61bcf42907cc68b8d8796388c3b3bf04d044e223470b7f7a33d2c7dd18",
      "meanings": [
        "不但……而且"
      ],
      "formation": "动词・い形容词普通形＋ばかりか；な形容词词干＋な＋ばかりか；名词＋ばかりか",
      "explanation": "在前项之外追加更令人意外的情况。",
      "notes": "后项常用も、まで或さえ。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "彼は約束の時間に遅れたばかりか、謝りもしなかった。",
          "zh": "他不仅迟到了，连道歉都没有。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "この薬は効果がないばかりか、副作用まであるそうだ。",
          "zh": "据说这药不但无效，还有副作用。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "その歌手は国内ばかりか、アジア各国でも人気がある。",
          "zh": "那位歌手不仅在国内，在亚洲各国也很受欢迎。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#bakari-ka",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "b29fe9f9dcaa64cdc83794bce227cea36836ad45f215ca4cb44fa3c5a757da54"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "bakari-ni",
    "pattern": "〜ばかりに",
    "romaji": "bakari ni",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "simply because; just because (with a bad result)",
    "formation": "Verb-plain / i-Adj / na-Adj + な / na-Adj + である / Noun + である + ばかりに",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "確認を一つ怠ったばかりに、大きな損害を出してしまった。",
        "furigana": "{確認|かくにん}を{一|ひと}つ{怠|おこた}ったばかりに、{大|おお}きな{損害|そんがい}を{出|だ}してしまった。",
        "en": "Simply because I skipped one check, I ended up causing heavy losses."
      },
      {
        "ja": "正直に話したばかりに、かえって彼女を傷つけてしまった。",
        "furigana": "{正直|しょうじき}に{話|はな}したばかりに、かえって{彼女|かのじょ}を{傷|きず}つけてしまった。",
        "en": "Just because I told the truth, I ended up hurting her instead."
      },
      {
        "ja": "英語ができないばかりに、せっかくのチャンスを逃した。",
        "furigana": "{英語|えいご}ができないばかりに、せっかくのチャンスを{逃|のが}した。",
        "en": "Just because I can't speak English, I missed a great opportunity."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "reason",
      "regret",
      "result"
    ],
    "notes": "The main clause is an unwanted result, often with regret. The set form 〜たいばかりに ('just because one wanted to') explains a strong motive.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "8c7213429336a014961779460e20553f8a3ef9fef6a33309d24696675c508211",
      "meanings": [
        "只因",
        "正因为"
      ],
      "formation": "动词・い形容词普通形＋ばかりに；な形容词词干＋な／である＋ばかりに；名词＋である＋ばかりに",
      "explanation": "表示因某个原因导致不好的结果，常含遗憾。",
      "notes": "たいばかりに可表示强烈动机。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "確認を一つ怠ったばかりに、大きな損害を出してしまった。",
          "zh": "只因疏忽了一项确认，就造成了重大损失。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "正直に話したばかりに、かえって彼女を傷つけてしまった。",
          "zh": "只因如实说了，反而伤害了她。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "英語ができないばかりに、せっかくのチャンスを逃した。",
          "zh": "只因不会英语，错失了难得的机会。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#bakari-ni",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "5521b3f7261510df96a050d3075dc2a41630cd659ea612621aeb729ae0ccfbf9"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "bakari-da",
    "pattern": "〜ばかりだ",
    "romaji": "bakari da",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "keep (getting worse); only continue to",
    "formation": "Verb-dict + ばかりだ",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "駅前の商店街は、客が減るばかりだ。",
        "furigana": "{駅前|えきまえ}の{商店|しょうてん}{街|がい}は、{客|きゃく}が{減|へ}るばかりだ。",
        "en": "The shopping street in front of the station just keeps losing customers."
      },
      {
        "ja": "薬を飲んでいるのに、症状は悪くなるばかりだ。",
        "furigana": "{薬|くすり}を{飲|の}んでいるのに、{症状|しょうじょう}は{悪|わる}くなるばかりだ。",
        "en": "Even though I'm taking medicine, my symptoms just keep getting worse."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "change",
      "tendency"
    ],
    "notes": "Change continuing in one direction, almost always for the worse. 〜一方だ (N3) is similar but can also describe neutral or good trends.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "8c93467c299018944febe4c3fd447383882826862f22c90b18e3f42b108d5b8b",
      "meanings": [
        "越来越",
        "不断"
      ],
      "formation": "动词辞书形＋ばかりだ",
      "explanation": "表示变化不断朝一个方向发展。",
      "notes": "通常用于不理想的变化。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "駅前の商店街は、客が減るばかりだ。",
          "zh": "车站前商店街的顾客不断减少。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "薬を飲んでいるのに、症状は悪くなるばかりだ。",
          "zh": "明明在吃药，症状却越来越严重。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#bakari-da",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "158324485030e66960280bc9ef46c2aaba8648d3cfc52737988462ab95848932"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "wa-mochiron-wa-motoyori",
    "pattern": "〜はもちろん / 〜はもとより",
    "romaji": "wa mochiron / wa motoyori",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "not to mention; of course ... and also",
    "formation": "Noun + はもちろん / Noun + はもとより",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "この公園は、週末はもちろん平日も家族連れでにぎわう。",
        "furigana": "この{公園|こうえん}は、{週末|しゅうまつ}はもちろん{平日|へいじつ}も{家族|かぞく}{連|づ}れでにぎわう。",
        "en": "This park is busy with families on weekdays, not to mention weekends."
      },
      {
        "ja": "この料理教室では、基本の調理法はもとより、盛り付けのコツまで教えてもらえる。",
        "furigana": "この{料理|りょうり}{教室|きょうしつ}では、{基本|きほん}の{調理|ちょうり}{法|ほう}はもとより、{盛|も}り{付|つ}けのコツまで{教|おし}えてもらえる。",
        "en": "At this cooking class, they teach you not only basic techniques but even tips on presentation."
      },
      {
        "ja": "地震の後、電気はもちろん、水道もガスも止まってしまった。",
        "furigana": "{地震|じしん}の{後|あと}、{電気|でんき}はもちろん、{水道|すいどう}もガスも{止|と}まってしまった。",
        "en": "After the earthquake, the water and gas were cut off, not to mention the electricity."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "addition",
      "emphasis"
    ],
    "notes": "A is the obvious case; B is added with も or まで. 〜はもとより is more formal and written than 〜はもちろん.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "3db8a3abf0807dd961855c14a294a1576a0184a342d67098cfc58c2cdd5c8602",
      "meanings": [
        "不用说",
        "不仅……还"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋はもちろん／はもとより",
      "explanation": "表示前项自不必说，后项也如此。",
      "notes": "はもとより较正式。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "この公園は、週末はもちろん平日も家族連れでにぎわう。",
          "zh": "这座公园不仅周末，平日也有很多家庭来玩。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "この料理教室では、基本の調理法はもとより、盛り付けのコツまで教えてもらえる。",
          "zh": "这个烹饪班不仅教基本烹饪方法，连摆盘诀窍也教。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "地震の後、電気はもちろん、水道もガスも止まってしまった。",
          "zh": "地震后不用说电，连水和燃气都停了。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#wa-mochiron-wa-motoyori",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "527fae3b2801bec0f91a8ec4735e29c094fbc1db844228b8cd2d4a4edbc52f04"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "wa-tomokaku",
    "pattern": "〜はともかく",
    "romaji": "wa tomokaku",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "setting aside; regardless of; whatever about",
    "formation": "Noun + はともかく / Noun + はともかくとして",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "見た目はともかく、味はなかなかいい。",
        "furigana": "{見|み}た{目|め}はともかく、{味|あじ}はなかなかいい。",
        "en": "Looks aside, it tastes pretty good."
      },
      {
        "ja": "結果はともかくとして、最後まで諦めなかったことは評価したい。",
        "furigana": "{結果|けっか}はともかくとして、{最後|さいご}まで{諦|あきら}めなかったことは{評価|ひょうか}したい。",
        "en": "Whatever the result, I want to give you credit for not giving up until the end."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "contrast",
      "topic"
    ],
    "notes": "Sets A aside to focus on B, which the speaker sees as more important. Compare 〜はさておき, used more to shelve a topic for now and move on.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "943e3c3a82d0190a34ed1588be9195a79613b8ea83e3b27aad5440c48b92ca61",
      "meanings": [
        "暂且不论",
        "姑且不说"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋はともかく／はともかくとして",
      "explanation": "暂时搁置前项，重点谈后项。",
      "notes": "常表示后项更值得关注。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "見た目はともかく、味はなかなかいい。",
          "zh": "外观暂且不论，味道相当不错。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "結果はともかくとして、最後まで諦めなかったことは評価したい。",
          "zh": "结果姑且不说，我想肯定他坚持到最后没有放弃。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#wa-tomokaku",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "ca7417a9baecda575310e089e24b33a754eb6a362e1b78247b20de9612cef9db"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "wa-sateoki",
    "pattern": "〜はさておき",
    "romaji": "wa sateoki",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "leaving aside; putting aside (for now)",
    "formation": "Noun + はさておき",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "冗談はさておき、そろそろ本題に入りましょう。",
        "furigana": "{冗談|じょうだん}はさておき、そろそろ{本題|ほんだい}に{入|はい}りましょう。",
        "en": "Joking aside, let's get down to business."
      },
      {
        "ja": "費用の問題はさておき、まずは実現可能かどうかを検討すべきだ。",
        "furigana": "{費用|ひよう}の{問題|もんだい}はさておき、まずは{実現|じつげん}{可能|かのう}かどうかを{検討|けんとう}すべきだ。",
        "en": "Setting aside the question of cost, we should first consider whether it's feasible."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "topic",
      "contrast"
    ],
    "notes": "Often used to switch to the main point, as in 冗談はさておき or それはさておき. Slightly more formal than 〜はともかく.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "84e48e4a29c29ad5738b42910be6af08ddcba45b2eaf9a44f8c5f1ba90409f95",
      "meanings": [
        "暂且搁置",
        "先不说"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋はさておき",
      "explanation": "把某话题暂时放下，转向更重要的话题。",
      "notes": "常见于冗谈或切换话题。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "冗談はさておき、そろそろ本題に入りましょう。",
          "zh": "玩笑先放一边，差不多该进入正题了。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "費用の問題はさておき、まずは実現可能かどうかを検討すべきだ。",
          "zh": "费用问题暂且不论，首先应该研究能否实现。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#wa-sateoki",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "7299219bccc4a235c1094002c27236ca5ef9ae483a90f28f3a3469e8c4b8aef0"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "hanmen",
    "pattern": "〜反面 / 〜半面",
    "reading": "〜はんめん / 〜はんめん",
    "romaji": "hanmen",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "on the other hand; while (it is ...)",
    "formation": "Verb-plain / i-Adj / na-Adj + な / na-Adj + である / Noun + である + 反面",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "都会の暮らしは便利な反面、ストレスも多い。",
        "furigana": "{都会|とかい}の{暮|く}らしは{便利|べんり}な{反面|はんめん}、ストレスも{多|おお}い。",
        "en": "City life is convenient, but on the other hand it's also stressful."
      },
      {
        "ja": "インターネットは情報を手軽に得られる反面、誤った情報も広まりやすい。",
        "furigana": "インターネットは{情報|じょうほう}を{手軽|てがる}に{得|え}られる{反面|はんめん}、{誤|あやま}った{情報|じょうほう}も{広|ひろ}まりやすい。",
        "en": "While the internet lets you get information easily, false information also spreads easily."
      },
      {
        "ja": "彼は仕事には厳しい反面、部下思いの一面もある。",
        "furigana": "{彼|かれ}は{仕事|しごと}には{厳|きび}しい{反面|はんめん}、{部下|ぶか}{思|おも}いの{一|いち}{面|めん}もある。",
        "en": "Though he's strict about work, he also has a side that looks out for his staff."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "contrast"
    ],
    "notes": "Presents two opposite sides of the same thing. 〜一方で (N3) is broader and can also contrast two different things.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "175242fbb3fc6442e37486d3f7e29ffb6009564571a0a23f46c879d76cf6f782",
      "meanings": [
        "另一方面",
        "虽然……但"
      ],
      "formation": "动词・い形容词普通形＋反面；な形容词词干＋な／である＋反面；名词＋である＋反面",
      "explanation": "呈现同一事物相反的两个方面。",
      "notes": "也写作半面。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "都会の暮らしは便利な反面、ストレスも多い。",
          "zh": "城市生活虽然便利，压力也很大。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "インターネットは情報を手軽に得られる反面、誤った情報も広まりやすい。",
          "zh": "互联网可以方便地获取信息，但错误信息也容易传播。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "彼は仕事には厳しい反面、部下思いの一面もある。",
          "zh": "他对工作严格，但也有关心下属的一面。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#hanmen",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "da285ae1ccb61f37672e3dadafd27e245b96b2adb478a239e149d48f74ea0f19"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "nagara-mo",
    "pattern": "〜ながら（も）",
    "romaji": "nagara mo",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "although; despite; while (contrary to expectation)",
    "formation": "Verb-stem / Verb-nai / i-Adj / na-Adj / Noun + ながら（も）",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "狭いながらも、日当たりのいい快適な部屋だ。",
        "furigana": "{狭|せま}いながらも、{日当|ひあ}たりのいい{快適|かいてき}な{部屋|へや}だ。",
        "en": "Although it's small, it's a comfortable, sunny room."
      },
      {
        "ja": "悪いと知りながら、つい嘘をついてしまった。",
        "furigana": "{悪|わる}いと{知|し}りながら、つい{嘘|うそ}をついてしまった。",
        "en": "Even though I knew it was wrong, I ended up telling a lie."
      },
      {
        "ja": "彼女は若いながらも、しっかりした考えを持っている。",
        "furigana": "{彼女|かのじょ}は{若|わか}いながらも、しっかりした{考|かんが}えを{持|も}っている。",
        "en": "Young as she is, she has very sound views."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "concession",
      "written"
    ],
    "notes": "Not the 'while doing' ながら: the subject is in state A, yet B is true. Set phrases: 残念ながら, 知りながら, 及ばずながら.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "821315667441d44e6bf880872ff5e61d219010ad3a3b679c699f2f3eed34711b",
      "meanings": [
        "虽然",
        "尽管"
      ],
      "formation": "动词ます形去ます／ない形／い形容词／な形容词词干／名词＋ながら（も）",
      "explanation": "表示前项状态与后项情况形成反差。",
      "notes": "不同于表示同时进行动作的ながら。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "狭いながらも、日当たりのいい快適な部屋だ。",
          "zh": "房间虽然小，却阳光充足、很舒适。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "悪いと知りながら、つい嘘をついてしまった。",
          "zh": "明知不好，我还是不由得撒了谎。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "彼女は若いながらも、しっかりした考えを持っている。",
          "zh": "她虽然年轻，却有成熟的想法。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#nagara-mo",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "d4244fceb2469d3b0ac0a8eb112a2d923142f1a2879fa311b66124cae7040421"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "tsutsu-tsutsu-mo",
    "pattern": "〜つつ / 〜つつも",
    "romaji": "tsutsu / tsutsu mo",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "while (doing); although, even while",
    "formation": "Verb-stem + つつ / Verb-stem + つつも",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "今年の業績を振り返りつつ、来年の目標を考えたい。",
        "furigana": "{今年|ことし}の{業績|ぎょうせき}を{振|ふ}り{返|かえ}りつつ、{来年|らいねん}の{目標|もくひょう}を{考|かんが}えたい。",
        "en": "While looking back on this year's results, I'd like to think about next year's goals."
      },
      {
        "ja": "体に悪いと分かりつつも、夜更かしがやめられない。",
        "furigana": "{体|からだ}に{悪|わる}いと{分|わ}かりつつも、{夜更|よふ}かしがやめられない。",
        "en": "Even though I know it's bad for me, I can't stop staying up late."
      },
      {
        "ja": "早く返事をしなければと思いつつ、もう一週間もたってしまった。",
        "furigana": "{早|はや}く{返事|へんじ}をしなければと{思|おも}いつつ、もう{一週間|いっしゅうかん}もたってしまった。",
        "en": "Even as I kept thinking I had to reply soon, a whole week has gone by."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "simultaneity",
      "concession",
      "written"
    ],
    "notes": "つつ alone is a written 〜ながら (two actions at once). つつも means 'although', typically with verbs of knowing or thinking (思いつつ, 知りつつ).",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "ebe72fed2d2900198a208a0cf8ec7221b08b1bb36b30bc4f82453bb5ec55f486",
      "meanings": [
        "一边",
        "虽然"
      ],
      "formation": "动词ます形去ます＋つつ／つつも",
      "explanation": "表示同时进行动作，或明知某事却仍然如此。",
      "notes": "つつも常表示让步；整体较书面。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "今年の業績を振り返りつつ、来年の目標を考えたい。",
          "zh": "我想一边回顾今年的业绩，一边考虑明年的目标。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "体に悪いと分かりつつも、夜更かしがやめられない。",
          "zh": "明知对身体不好，却还是戒不掉熬夜。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "早く返事をしなければと思いつつ、もう一週間もたってしまった。",
          "zh": "想着必须尽快回复，已经过去了一周。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#tsutsu-tsutsu-mo",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "b4e81e283b2eb006507f9bcd6cc82b2b152c6098c1d0cb2dcb76f51c4a86a8e4"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "tsutsu-aru",
    "pattern": "〜つつある",
    "romaji": "tsutsu aru",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "be in the process of; be gradually (changing)",
    "formation": "Verb-stem + つつある",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "地球の平均気温は、年々上昇しつつある。",
        "furigana": "{地球|ちきゅう}の{平均|へいきん}{気温|きおん}は、{年々|ねんねん}{上昇|じょうしょう}しつつある。",
        "en": "The earth's average temperature is steadily rising year by year."
      },
      {
        "ja": "この地域の伝統的な祭りは、若者の減少とともに失われつつある。",
        "furigana": "この{地域|ちいき}の{伝統|でんとう}{的|てき}な{祭|まつ}りは、{若者|わかもの}の{減少|げんしょう}とともに{失|うしな}われつつある。",
        "en": "This area's traditional festivals are gradually being lost as the young population declines."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "change",
      "written"
    ],
    "notes": "Written style for change that is underway toward some result. Used with change verbs (増える, 回復する, 変わる), not with simple ongoing actions like 食べる.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "cd06b953187ee541b36a581c0edb380a743fca9fe0706bd10a20da7f7656977c",
      "meanings": [
        "正在逐渐……"
      ],
      "formation": "动词ます形去ます＋つつある",
      "explanation": "表示变化正逐渐进行。",
      "notes": "较书面，常接上升、恢复、变化等动词。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "地球の平均気温は、年々上昇しつつある。",
          "zh": "地球平均气温逐年上升。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "この地域の伝統的な祭りは、若者の減少とともに失われつつある。",
          "zh": "随着年轻人减少，这个地区的传统节日正在逐渐消失。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#tsutsu-aru",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "c92c82b503951b196d9713a6c18a14f458e67e47c3aac4a582e4651de7b05e90"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ppanashi",
    "pattern": "〜っぱなし",
    "romaji": "ppanashi",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "leaving (something) as is; keep (doing) without a break",
    "formation": "Verb-stem + っぱなし",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "部屋の電気をつけっぱなしにして出かけてしまった。",
        "furigana": "{部屋|へや}の{電気|でんき}をつけっぱなしにして{出|で}かけてしまった。",
        "en": "I went out and left the light on in my room."
      },
      {
        "ja": "今日は朝から立ちっぱなしで、足が痛い。",
        "furigana": "{今日|きょう}は{朝|あさ}から{立|た}ちっぱなしで、{足|あし}が{痛|いた}い。",
        "en": "I've been on my feet since this morning, and my legs hurt."
      },
      {
        "ja": "窓を開けっぱなしにしないでください。",
        "furigana": "{窓|まど}を{開|あ}けっぱなしにしないでください。",
        "en": "Please don't leave the window open."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "state",
      "criticism",
      "casual"
    ],
    "notes": "Either something left undone that should have been dealt with (often a complaint), or a state that goes on without a break. Conversational.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "8545ecfc3a55033294e85f10de7a3eda7d49753d873d51b52fc4479d1a86b0e5",
      "meanings": [
        "一直……",
        "放任……不管"
      ],
      "formation": "动词ます形去ます＋っぱなし",
      "explanation": "表示动作持续，或做完后让状态保持不管。",
      "notes": "常带抱怨语气，属于口语。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "部屋の電気をつけっぱなしにして出かけてしまった。",
          "zh": "我开着房间的灯就出门了。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "今日は朝から立ちっぱなしで、足が痛い。",
          "zh": "今天从早上起一直站着，脚都疼了。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "窓を開けっぱなしにしないでください。",
          "zh": "请不要把窗户一直开着。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ppanashi",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "c17a27ae21e81f024d67693bb35c8e124e74516b8b0e3c50c196a3830b6976b8"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "nuku",
    "pattern": "〜抜く",
    "reading": "〜ぬく",
    "romaji": "nuku",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "do to the very end; see through; do thoroughly",
    "formation": "Verb-stem + 抜く",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "足を痛めていたが、彼は最後まで走り抜いた。",
        "furigana": "{足|あし}を{痛|いた}めていたが、{彼|かれ}は{最後|さいご}まで{走|はし}り{抜|ぬ}いた。",
        "en": "Although he had hurt his leg, he ran all the way to the finish."
      },
      {
        "ja": "悩み抜いた末に出した結論なので、後悔はない。",
        "furigana": "{悩|なや}み{抜|ぬ}いた{末|すえ}に{出|だ}した{結論|けつろん}なので、{後悔|こうかい}はない。",
        "en": "It's a conclusion I reached after thinking it through thoroughly, so I have no regrets."
      },
      {
        "ja": "チームは苦しい試合で一点のリードを守り抜いた。",
        "furigana": "チームは{苦|くる}しい{試合|しあい}で{一点|いってん}のリードを{守|まも}り{抜|ぬ}いた。",
        "en": "The team held on to its one-point lead through a tough game."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "completion",
      "emphasis"
    ],
    "notes": "Stresses finishing something hard despite difficulty, or doing it to the fullest (考え抜く, 生き抜く).",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "58cda55e735bc4335c0c1771c7af1c49a215a741862ed62eea7da6c7cfb22c31",
      "meanings": [
        "坚持到底",
        "彻底"
      ],
      "formation": "动词ます形去ます＋抜く",
      "explanation": "表示克服困难完成，或彻底做到某种程度。",
      "notes": "常用于走完、想透、坚持等。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "足を痛めていたが、彼は最後まで走り抜いた。",
          "zh": "虽然伤了脚，他还是坚持跑到了最后。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "悩み抜いた末に出した結論なので、後悔はない。",
          "zh": "这是苦苦思考后得出的结论，所以我不后悔。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "チームは苦しい試合で一点のリードを守り抜いた。",
          "zh": "球队在艰难比赛中把一分的领先优势保持到了最后。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#nuku",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "bdf5fe8795d6b28c564bfa904367f059b15dd1d542ee292d08406ba9f392d1a4"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "uru-enai",
    "pattern": "〜得る / 〜得ない",
    "reading": "〜うる / 〜えない",
    "romaji": "uru / enai",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "can; be possible / cannot; be impossible",
    "formation": "Verb-stem + 得る / Verb-stem + 得ない",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "どんなに注意していても、事故は起こり得る。",
        "furigana": "どんなに{注意|ちゅうい}していても、{事故|じこ}は{起|お}こり{得|え}る。",
        "en": "No matter how careful you are, accidents can happen."
      },
      {
        "ja": "あの真面目な彼が犯人だなんて、あり得ない。",
        "furigana": "あの{真面目|まじめ}な{彼|かれ}が{犯人|はんにん}だなんて、あり{得|え}ない。",
        "en": "There's no way someone as serious as him could be the culprit."
      },
      {
        "ja": "今回の調査で、これまで知り得なかった事実が明らかになった。",
        "furigana": "{今回|こんかい}の{調査|ちょうさ}で、これまで{知|し}り{得|え}なかった{事実|じじつ}が{明|あき}らかになった。",
        "en": "This investigation brought to light facts we had been unable to learn until now."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "possibility",
      "written"
    ],
    "notes": "Logical possibility, not personal skill (not ×泳ぎ得る for 'can swim'). The positive is read うる or える; other forms use え- (えない, えた).",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "3a036858d33718a192d6a4d9cb0ff6709a5f1d9728ecaa0b270b7c5f31decf56",
      "meanings": [
        "可能",
        "不可能"
      ],
      "formation": "动词ます形去ます＋得る／得ない",
      "explanation": "表示逻辑上或客观上的可能性。",
      "notes": "得る可读うる或える；得ない读えない。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "どんなに注意していても、事故は起こり得る。",
          "zh": "无论多小心，事故都有可能发生。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "あの真面目な彼が犯人だなんて、あり得ない。",
          "zh": "那么认真的他是犯人，绝不可能。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "今回の調査で、これまで知り得なかった事実が明らかになった。",
          "zh": "这次调查揭示了此前无法得知的事实。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#uru-enai",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "aaf45efed3372deb2431c68396b02dd045df10f731f4168cef7ff162280d32f5"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "gatai",
    "pattern": "〜がたい",
    "romaji": "gatai",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "hard to; almost impossible to (emotionally)",
    "formation": "Verb-stem + がたい",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "あの誠実な人が不正をしたとは、信じがたい。",
        "furigana": "あの{誠実|せいじつ}な{人|ひと}が{不正|ふせい}をしたとは、{信|しん}じがたい。",
        "en": "It's hard to believe that such an honest person committed fraud."
      },
      {
        "ja": "彼の失礼な態度は、どうにも許しがたい。",
        "furigana": "{彼|かれ}の{失礼|しつれい}な{態度|たいど}は、どうにも{許|ゆる}しがたい。",
        "en": "His rude attitude is simply unforgivable."
      },
      {
        "ja": "生まれ育った町は、やはり離れがたいものだ。",
        "furigana": "{生|う}まれ{育|そだ}った{町|まち}は、やはり{離|はな}れがたいものだ。",
        "en": "The town you grew up in is, after all, hard to leave."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "possibility",
      "emotion",
      "written"
    ],
    "notes": "Used with verbs of thinking and feeling (信じる, 理解する, 許す, 離れる). Unlike 〜にくい, not for physical difficulty (×この肉は食べがたい).",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "9798bf035cce759903656fa5a2feab4d3d3b904963681354765158d9a7da8fed",
      "meanings": [
        "难以",
        "无法"
      ],
      "formation": "动词ます形去ます＋がたい",
      "explanation": "表示心理或感情上难以做到。",
      "notes": "常与相信、理解、原谅等动词搭配。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "あの誠実な人が不正をしたとは、信じがたい。",
          "zh": "那个诚实的人竟然作假，难以置信。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "彼の失礼な態度は、どうにも許しがたい。",
          "zh": "他无礼的态度实在难以原谅。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "生まれ育った町は、やはり離れがたいものだ。",
          "zh": "自己生长的城镇果然令人难以离开。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#gatai",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "3931b55489f45e9b8f8fbca149d32c6d7ffae43f080e7d3ad021ac6db13ab31a"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "you-ga-nai",
    "pattern": "〜ようがない",
    "romaji": "you ga nai",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "there's no way to; cannot possibly (no means available)",
    "formation": "Verb-stem + ようがない / Noun + の + しようがない",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "連絡先が分からないので、知らせようがない。",
        "furigana": "{連絡|れんらく}{先|さき}が{分|わ}からないので、{知|し}らせようがない。",
        "en": "I don't have his contact details, so there's no way to let him know."
      },
      {
        "ja": "これだけ証拠がそろっていては、言い訳のしようがない。",
        "furigana": "これだけ{証拠|しょうこ}がそろっていては、{言|い}い{訳|わけ}のしようがない。",
        "en": "With this much evidence, there's no way to make excuses."
      },
      {
        "ja": "壊れた部品がもう生産されていないので、直しようがない。",
        "furigana": "{壊|こわ}れた{部品|ぶひん}がもう{生産|せいさん}されていないので、{直|なお}しようがない。",
        "en": "The broken part is no longer made, so there's no way to fix it."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "possibility",
      "negation",
      "means"
    ],
    "notes": "There's no method at all, even if one wanted to. 〜ようもない is more emphatic. With suru-nouns: 説明のしようがない.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "161e64fbd5a7fa4881363234b099551ef8e30309ed7bb922c231ad69ab205284",
      "meanings": [
        "无法",
        "没有办法"
      ],
      "formation": "动词ます形去ます＋ようがない；名词＋のしようがない",
      "explanation": "表示没有任何方法做某事。",
      "notes": "ようもない语气更强。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "連絡先が分からないので、知らせようがない。",
          "zh": "不知道联系方式，就没办法通知。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "これだけ証拠がそろっていては、言い訳のしようがない。",
          "zh": "证据如此齐全，无法辩解。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "壊れた部品がもう生産されていないので、直しようがない。",
          "zh": "损坏的部件已经停产，没办法修理。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#you-ga-nai",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "68fede5b81ff033e64fcddecb871a93bfe28754b99e31b5209fc4eea885e9344"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "you-de-wa",
    "pattern": "〜ようでは",
    "romaji": "you de wa",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "if (you are like this / keep doing this), (it's no good)",
    "formation": "Verb-plain + ようでは",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "こんな簡単なミスをするようでは、大きな仕事は任せられない。",
        "furigana": "こんな{簡単|かんたん}なミスをするようでは、{大|おお}きな{仕事|しごと}は{任|まか}せられない。",
        "en": "If you make simple mistakes like this, we can't trust you with big jobs."
      },
      {
        "ja": "毎朝遅刻しているようでは、信頼を得られないよ。",
        "furigana": "{毎朝|まいあさ}{遅刻|ちこく}しているようでは、{信頼|しんらい}を{得|え}られないよ。",
        "en": "If you're late every morning, you won't earn anyone's trust."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "condition",
      "criticism"
    ],
    "notes": "Criticizes an undesirable state and predicts a bad outcome; the main clause is negative (〜ない, 困る, だめだ).",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "35982d6924ba44c6d695431d82623d9bc10e8c6f44ca2945f25bf3ac52880099",
      "meanings": [
        "如果……这样的话"
      ],
      "formation": "动词普通形＋ようでは",
      "explanation": "批评不理想的状态，并推断不良结果。",
      "notes": "后项常是否定判断。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "こんな簡単なミスをするようでは、大きな仕事は任せられない。",
          "zh": "连这么简单的错误都会犯，就不能把重要工作交给你。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "毎朝遅刻しているようでは、信頼を得られないよ。",
          "zh": "每天早上都迟到的话，就无法获得信任。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#you-de-wa",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "a018c381f76f1fa2e4692fd1576361e23a3ba75640147d8cd3c3bc30f6df50a8"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "te-naranai",
    "pattern": "〜てならない",
    "romaji": "te naranai",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "can't help (feeling); feel terribly; extremely",
    "formation": "Verb-te + ならない / i-Adj-ku + てならない / na-Adj + でならない",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "故郷の母のことが心配でならない。",
        "furigana": "{故郷|こきょう}の{母|はは}のことが{心配|しんぱい}でならない。",
        "en": "I can't stop worrying about my mother back home."
      },
      {
        "ja": "あのとき本当のことを言わなかったのが、悔やまれてならない。",
        "furigana": "あのとき{本当|ほんとう}のことを{言|い}わなかったのが、{悔|く}やまれてならない。",
        "en": "I bitterly regret not telling the truth back then."
      },
      {
        "ja": "この計画には何か裏があるような気がしてならない。",
        "furigana": "この{計画|けいかく}には{何|なに}か{裏|うら}があるような{気|き}がしてならない。",
        "en": "I can't shake the feeling that there's something behind this plan."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "emotion",
      "degree"
    ],
    "notes": "For feelings or impressions that arise on their own (気がする, 思われる, 心配だ, 残念だ). More formal and written than 〜てたまらない / 〜てしょうがない.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "4d91bdd11d0174bbd409d678f0b795f9d88bbeb5bc37ded2def04719cd072dd4",
      "meanings": [
        "非常",
        "忍不住"
      ],
      "formation": "动词て形＋ならない；い形容词くて形＋ならない；な形容词词干＋でならない",
      "explanation": "表示自然而然产生的强烈情感或感觉。",
      "notes": "较てしょうがない书面。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "故郷の母のことが心配でならない。",
          "zh": "我非常担心故乡的母亲。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "あのとき本当のことを言わなかったのが、悔やまれてならない。",
          "zh": "我很后悔当时没有说实话。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "この計画には何か裏があるような気がしてならない。",
          "zh": "我总觉得这个计划有什么隐情。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#te-naranai",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "6ea0ec4f68e2eee768c12b658b0dc3fb397c6a71cc4548e379a7f2e353006827"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "te-koso",
    "pattern": "〜てこそ",
    "romaji": "te koso",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "only by (doing); only when",
    "formation": "Verb-te + こそ",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "自分で経験してこそ、本当の意味で理解できるのだ。",
        "furigana": "{自分|じぶん}で{経験|けいけん}してこそ、{本当|ほんとう}の{意味|いみ}で{理解|りかい}できるのだ。",
        "en": "Only by experiencing it yourself can you truly understand it."
      },
      {
        "ja": "お互いに協力し合ってこそ、チームは強くなる。",
        "furigana": "お{互|たが}いに{協力|きょうりょく}し{合|あ}ってこそ、チームは{強|つよ}くなる。",
        "en": "A team only becomes strong when its members work together."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "condition",
      "emphasis"
    ],
    "notes": "Stresses that A is the essential condition for the real value or result in B. 〜てはじめて (N3) is more neutral, focusing on timing.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "733b3f187ef8775dc35dd6bb8884fd88a24afeb0e67f8f27c570c70513be56a4",
      "meanings": [
        "只有……才"
      ],
      "formation": "动词て形＋こそ",
      "explanation": "强调前项是实现后项的重要条件。",
      "notes": "てはじめて更侧重时间顺序。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "自分で経験してこそ、本当の意味で理解できるのだ。",
          "zh": "只有亲身经历，才能真正理解。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "お互いに協力し合ってこそ、チームは強くなる。",
          "zh": "只有互相合作，团队才会变强。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#te-koso",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "0689e7f9eb3e915db8ef65c6e9e2b7db2abd8b53f3fd3dc6c866296c6ef665b6"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "te-kara-de-nai-to",
    "pattern": "〜てからでないと",
    "romaji": "te kara de nai to",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "not until (after doing); only after",
    "formation": "Verb-te + からでないと / Verb-te + からでなければ",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "実物を見てからでないと、買うかどうか決められない。",
        "furigana": "{実物|じつぶつ}を{見|み}てからでないと、{買|か}うかどうか{決|き}められない。",
        "en": "I can't decide whether to buy it until I've seen the real thing."
      },
      {
        "ja": "この薬は、医師に相談してからでなければ服用しないでください。",
        "furigana": "この{薬|くすり}は、{医師|いし}に{相談|そうだん}してからでなければ{服用|ふくよう}しないでください。",
        "en": "Please do not take this medicine until you have consulted a doctor."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "condition",
      "sequence"
    ],
    "notes": "The main clause is negative or expresses difficulty: B can't happen unless A is done first.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "d990de0e0f625bf142dc7434ffa075cfaa568671b5403c156630143c48874184",
      "meanings": [
        "只有……之后才"
      ],
      "formation": "动词て形＋からでないと／からでなければ",
      "explanation": "表示不先完成前项，就无法进行后项。",
      "notes": "后项通常是否定或表示困难。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "実物を見てからでないと、買うかどうか決められない。",
          "zh": "不看到实物，我无法决定买不买。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "この薬は、医師に相談してからでなければ服用しないでください。",
          "zh": "服用这种药前请先咨询医生。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#te-kara-de-nai-to",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "5fd17f88bc041bb3b60b6141e29f4495691c450fda6c287237e8fe504d07166f"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "te-irai",
    "pattern": "〜て以来",
    "reading": "〜ていらい",
    "romaji": "te irai",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "ever since",
    "formation": "Verb-te + 以来 / Noun + 以来",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "大学を卒業して以来、彼とは一度も会っていない。",
        "furigana": "{大学|だいがく}を{卒業|そつぎょう}して{以来|いらい}、{彼|かれ}とは{一|いち}{度|ど}も{会|あ}っていない。",
        "en": "I haven't seen him once since we graduated from university."
      },
      {
        "ja": "この町に越してきて以来、毎朝川沿いを散歩するのが日課になっている。",
        "furigana": "この{町|まち}に{越|こ}してきて{以来|いらい}、{毎朝|まいあさ}{川|かわ}{沿|ぞ}いを{散歩|さんぽ}するのが{日課|にっか}になっている。",
        "en": "Ever since I moved to this town, a morning walk along the river has been part of my routine."
      },
      {
        "ja": "創業以来、この店は同じ味を守り続けている。",
        "furigana": "{創業|そうぎょう}{以来|いらい}、この{店|みせ}は{同|おな}じ{味|あじ}を{守|まも}り{続|つづ}けている。",
        "en": "Since its founding, this shop has kept the same flavor."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "time"
    ],
    "notes": "The main clause is a state or habit continuing from that past point up to now, not a single later event. More formal than 〜てから.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "4f34f5c1a757915dd60d8c1040e819db25986dc4aedc2004009aff992b08af98",
      "meanings": [
        "自从……以来"
      ],
      "formation": "动词て形＋以来；名词＋以来",
      "explanation": "表示从过去某时一直持续到现在的状态或习惯。",
      "notes": "比てから更正式。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "大学を卒業して以来、彼とは一度も会っていない。",
          "zh": "大学毕业以来，我一次也没有见过他。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "この町に越してきて以来、毎朝川沿いを散歩するのが日課になっている。",
          "zh": "搬到这个镇子以来，每天早上沿河散步成了我的习惯。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "創業以来、この店は同じ味を守り続けている。",
          "zh": "从开业以来，这家店一直保持同样的味道。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#te-irai",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "690e9d6ea5cb92dc1103aa7195c5f3d375786e329eefc35ddd1101c42d02d064"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-suginai",
    "pattern": "〜に過ぎない",
    "reading": "〜にすぎない",
    "romaji": "ni suginai",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "merely; nothing more than; only",
    "formation": "Verb-plain / Noun + に過ぎない",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "それは単なるうわさに過ぎない。",
        "furigana": "それは{単|たん}なるうわさに{過|す}ぎない。",
        "en": "That's nothing more than a rumor."
      },
      {
        "ja": "私は自分の仕事をしたに過ぎません。",
        "furigana": "{私|わたし}は{自分|じぶん}の{仕事|しごと}をしたに{過|す}ぎません。",
        "en": "I was merely doing my job."
      },
      {
        "ja": "今回明らかになった問題は、氷山の一角に過ぎない。",
        "furigana": "{今回|こんかい}{明|あき}らかになった{問題|もんだい}は、{氷山|ひょうざん}の{一角|いっかく}に{過|す}ぎない。",
        "en": "The problem that has come to light this time is merely the tip of the iceberg."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "limitation",
      "emphasis",
      "formal"
    ],
    "notes": "Downplays something as small or unimportant. Often with ただ or 単なる.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "f7bbbbd5d7f9dad7001f625c303ca638d1eeebf287bbe621da4291f333d0872f",
      "meanings": [
        "不过",
        "仅仅"
      ],
      "formation": "动词普通形＋に過ぎない；名词＋に過ぎない",
      "explanation": "表示某事只是程度有限的一项。",
      "notes": "常与単なる、ただ等搭配。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "それは単なるうわさに過ぎない。",
          "zh": "那只不过是传闻。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "私は自分の仕事をしたに過ぎません。",
          "zh": "我只不过做了自己的工作。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "今回明らかになった問題は、氷山の一角に過ぎない。",
          "zh": "这次发现的问题只是冰山一角。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-suginai",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "ec6315e9c38d82c108f7132c1a8a24c33b3e4f40f095a4469f28722bed002550"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-kagiru",
    "pattern": "〜に限る",
    "reading": "〜にかぎる",
    "romaji": "ni kagiru",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "nothing beats; the best thing is",
    "formation": "Verb-dict / Verb-nai / Noun + に限る",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "疲れたときは、早く寝るに限る。",
        "furigana": "{疲|つか}れたときは、{早|はや}く{寝|ね}るに{限|かぎ}る。",
        "en": "When you're tired, there's nothing better than going to bed early."
      },
      {
        "ja": "夏の暑い日は、冷たいビールに限る。",
        "furigana": "{夏|なつ}の{暑|あつ}い{日|ひ}は、{冷|つめ}たいビールに{限|かぎ}る。",
        "en": "On a hot summer day, nothing beats a cold beer."
      },
      {
        "ja": "面倒なことには関わらないに限る。",
        "furigana": "{面倒|めんどう}なことには{関|かか}わらないに{限|かぎ}る。",
        "en": "It's best to stay out of troublesome matters."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "advice",
      "suggestion"
    ],
    "notes": "The speaker's personal conviction that something is the best choice; conversational. For a more general 'it's best to', use 〜に越したことはない.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "68690c28ebe070aab530a21c928ff3cfb8f592929b09c7a4c7e317d6294be753",
      "meanings": [
        "最好",
        "莫过于"
      ],
      "formation": "动词辞书形／ない形＋に限る；名词＋に限る",
      "explanation": "表达说话人认为某选择最好。",
      "notes": "常带个人偏好。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "疲れたときは、早く寝るに限る。",
          "zh": "累的时候，最好早点睡。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "夏の暑い日は、冷たいビールに限る。",
          "zh": "夏天炎热的日子里，莫过于喝冰啤酒。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "面倒なことには関わらないに限る。",
          "zh": "麻烦事最好不要掺和。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-kagiru",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "59d1017d251ec1f256d1ec03d166f0cbe806e242d826ee6c551fb5d01edbf437"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-kagirazu",
    "pattern": "〜に限らず",
    "reading": "〜にかぎらず",
    "romaji": "ni kagirazu",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "not only; not limited to",
    "formation": "Noun + に限らず",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "この遊園地は、子どもに限らず大人にも人気がある。",
        "furigana": "この{遊園|ゆうえん}{地|ち}は、{子|こ}どもに{限|かぎ}らず{大人|おとな}にも{人気|にんき}がある。",
        "en": "This amusement park is popular not only with children but with adults as well."
      },
      {
        "ja": "日本に限らず、多くの先進国が少子化の問題を抱えている。",
        "furigana": "{日本|にほん}に{限|かぎ}らず、{多|おお}くの{先進|せんしん}{国|こく}が{少子化|しょうしか}の{問題|もんだい}を{抱|かか}えている。",
        "en": "Not just Japan but many developed countries face a falling birthrate."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "range",
      "addition"
    ],
    "notes": "Widens the scope beyond A; the second part usually has も. Close to 〜だけでなく but a bit more formal.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "6a297b75078b5153d34c7dffba1360071cef6d03bdc0c0249dd6b4a4dff8ecff",
      "meanings": [
        "不限于",
        "不只是"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋に限らず",
      "explanation": "将范围扩展到前项以外。",
      "notes": "后项常用も。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "この遊園地は、子どもに限らず大人にも人気がある。",
          "zh": "这个游乐园不只受孩子欢迎，也受大人欢迎。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "日本に限らず、多くの先進国が少子化の問題を抱えている。",
          "zh": "不只是日本，很多发达国家都面临少子化问题。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-kagirazu",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "3311e955a791072d6030e9a9565d683b2e920fe11dae3f24711b73cbde9dc760"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-kagitte",
    "pattern": "〜に限って",
    "reading": "〜にかぎって",
    "romaji": "ni kagitte",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "of all (times/people); precisely when; (someone) of all people wouldn't",
    "formation": "Noun + に限って",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "傘を持っていない日に限って、雨が降るんだよね。",
        "furigana": "{傘|かさ}を{持|も}っていない{日|ひ}に{限|かぎ}って、{雨|あめ}が{降|ふ}るんだよね。",
        "en": "It always rains on exactly the days I don't have an umbrella."
      },
      {
        "ja": "急いでいるときに限って、電車が遅れる。",
        "furigana": "{急|いそ}いでいるときに{限|かぎ}って、{電車|でんしゃ}が{遅|おく}れる。",
        "en": "The train is always late precisely when I'm in a hurry."
      },
      {
        "ja": "うちの子に限って、そんなことをするはずがない。",
        "furigana": "うちの{子|こ}に{限|かぎ}って、そんなことをするはずがない。",
        "en": "My child, of all people, would never do such a thing."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "limitation",
      "emphasis"
    ],
    "notes": "Two uses: (1) 'just when', complaining that bad luck strikes at the worst time; (2) with はずがない / ない, firm trust that a particular person wouldn't do something.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "77dc921d1ab112d87e630bcbef12a836bd3c77330824c03b2233da04237534aa",
      "meanings": [
        "偏偏",
        "唯独"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋に限って",
      "explanation": "表示偏偏在不方便的时候发生，或坚信某人不会做某事。",
      "notes": "根据后项区分抱怨和信赖两种用法。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "傘を持っていない日に限って、雨が降るんだよね。",
          "zh": "偏偏没带伞的时候下雨。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "急いでいるときに限って、電車が遅れる。",
          "zh": "偏偏着急的时候电车晚点。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "うちの子に限って、そんなことをするはずがない。",
          "zh": "我家孩子绝不可能做那种事。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-kagitte",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "9b718dc538601bef4ad644ba8bcd90e4dc17d5745e60fa092e5a2e78c294d849"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-kagiri",
    "pattern": "〜に限り",
    "reading": "〜にかぎり",
    "romaji": "ni kagiri",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "limited to; only (for)",
    "formation": "Noun + に限り",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "本日ご来店のお客様に限り、全商品を二割引きいたします。",
        "furigana": "{本日|ほんじつ}ご{来店|らいてん}のお{客様|きゃくさま}に{限|かぎ}り、{全|ぜん}{商品|しょうひん}を{二|に}{割|わり}{引|び}きいたします。",
        "en": "For customers visiting today only, all items are 20% off."
      },
      {
        "ja": "先着百名様に限り、記念品を差し上げます。",
        "furigana": "{先着|せんちゃく}{百|ひゃく}{名|めい}{様|さま}に{限|かぎ}り、{記念|きねん}{品|ひん}を{差|さ}し{上|あ}げます。",
        "en": "Commemorative gifts will be given to the first hundred people only."
      },
      {
        "ja": "この駐車場は、住民に限り無料で利用できる。",
        "furigana": "この{駐車|ちゅうしゃ}{場|じょう}は、{住民|じゅうみん}に{限|かぎ}り{無料|むりょう}で{利用|りよう}できる。",
        "en": "Parking here is free for residents only."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "limitation",
      "formal"
    ],
    "notes": "Formal; typical of notices, ads and rules to state who or what a condition applies to.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "9769dbb4017b4043b32afc5b0121dac3ced004a306c580c2ca2f92fada44d519",
      "meanings": [
        "仅限",
        "只限"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋に限り",
      "explanation": "正式地限定条件适用的对象或范围。",
      "notes": "常见于通知和广告。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "本日ご来店のお客様に限り、全商品を二割引きいたします。",
          "zh": "仅限今天到店的顾客，所有商品打八折。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "先着百名様に限り、記念品を差し上げます。",
          "zh": "仅限前一百名赠送纪念品。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "この駐車場は、住民に限り無料で利用できる。",
          "zh": "这个停车场仅限住户免费使用。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-kagiri",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "d9c0a6f828d3e807be6bb762c0e709d316ae6eb9af4e27a1addc2ddb7f7c1a73"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "kagiri",
    "pattern": "〜かぎり",
    "romaji": "kagiri",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "as long as; as far as (to the limit of)",
    "formation": "Verb-dict / Verb-te + いる / i-Adj / na-Adj + である / Noun + である + かぎり",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "私の知るかぎり、彼が約束を破ったことは一度もない。",
        "furigana": "{私|わたし}の{知|し}るかぎり、{彼|かれ}が{約束|やくそく}を{破|やぶ}ったことは{一|いち}{度|ど}もない。",
        "en": "As far as I know, he has never once broken a promise."
      },
      {
        "ja": "体が動くかぎり、この仕事を続けたい。",
        "furigana": "{体|からだ}が{動|うご}くかぎり、この{仕事|しごと}を{続|つづ}けたい。",
        "en": "As long as my body keeps working, I want to continue this job."
      },
      {
        "ja": "できるかぎりのことはやったので、結果がどうなっても悔いはない。",
        "furigana": "できるかぎりのことはやったので、{結果|けっか}がどうなっても{悔|く}いはない。",
        "en": "I did everything I could, so whatever the result, I have no regrets."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "condition",
      "limitation",
      "range"
    ],
    "notes": "'As long as' a condition holds, or 'as far as' the limit of knowledge or ability (私の知るかぎり, できるかぎり). Also written 限り. Different from 〜に限り (limited to).",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "f10c823b7f911a7ebc9cee662f21fa52ab3608a20ff882dcc887fe75b190d19f",
      "meanings": [
        "只要",
        "尽……所能"
      ],
      "formation": "动词辞书形／ている形＋かぎり；い形容词普通形＋かぎり；な形容词・名词＋である＋かぎり",
      "explanation": "表示某条件持续有效，或知识、能力所及的范围。",
      "notes": "也写作限り。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "私の知るかぎり、彼が約束を破ったことは一度もない。",
          "zh": "据我所知，他从未违背过约定。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "体が動くかぎり、この仕事を続けたい。",
          "zh": "只要身体还能动，我就想继续这份工作。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "できるかぎりのことはやったので、結果がどうなっても悔いはない。",
          "zh": "我尽力做了能做的事，所以无论结果如何都不会后悔。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#kagiri",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "6f7a75cda508a8fd0fcb2b5e58e00e66aba279b6ed34a9368310703e009f01ac"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "nai-kagiri",
    "pattern": "〜ないかぎり",
    "romaji": "nai kagiri",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "unless; as long as ... not",
    "formation": "Verb-nai + かぎり",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "よほどのことがないかぎり、明日の会議には出席します。",
        "furigana": "よほどのことがないかぎり、{明日|あした}の{会議|かいぎ}には{出席|しゅっせき}します。",
        "en": "Unless something serious comes up, I'll attend tomorrow's meeting."
      },
      {
        "ja": "本人が反省しないかぎり、同じ問題は何度でも起こるだろう。",
        "furigana": "{本人|ほんにん}が{反省|はんせい}しないかぎり、{同|おな}じ{問題|もんだい}は{何|なん}{度|ど}でも{起|お}こるだろう。",
        "en": "Unless he genuinely reflects on it, the same problem will keep happening."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "condition",
      "negation"
    ],
    "notes": "B holds as long as A doesn't happen. More emphatic and formal than 〜なければ.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "352a1e7de16a2823b6ab88b5d534a1d6a444d994ef1d8381d409cc6d966285b7",
      "meanings": [
        "只要不",
        "除非"
      ],
      "formation": "动词ない形＋かぎり",
      "explanation": "表示只要前项没有发生，后项便持续成立。",
      "notes": "比なければ更正式。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "よほどのことがないかぎり、明日の会議には出席します。",
          "zh": "除非发生非常重大的事情，我会出席明天的会议。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "本人が反省しないかぎり、同じ問題は何度でも起こるだろう。",
          "zh": "除非本人反省，否则同样的问题会不断发生。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#nai-kagiri",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "bb30867c9482ff63293e811c928fae5bca8db97e01f88dbe5caff0d2849a8480"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-kakete-wa",
    "pattern": "〜にかけては",
    "romaji": "ni kakete wa",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "when it comes to; in terms of (skill)",
    "formation": "Noun + にかけては / Noun + にかけても",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "料理の腕にかけては、うちの父は誰にも負けない。",
        "furigana": "{料理|りょうり}の{腕|うで}にかけては、うちの{父|ちち}は{誰|だれ}にも{負|ま}けない。",
        "en": "When it comes to cooking, my father is second to none."
      },
      {
        "ja": "彼女は数字の分析にかけては、社内で右に出る者がいない。",
        "furigana": "{彼女|かのじょ}は{数字|すうじ}の{分析|ぶんせき}にかけては、{社内|しゃない}で{右|みぎ}に{出|で}る{者|もの}がいない。",
        "en": "When it comes to analyzing numbers, no one in the company can match her."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "topic",
      "ability"
    ],
    "notes": "Praises someone's ability in a specific field; typically followed by 誰にも負けない, 一番だ, 自信がある.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "09f1ed31c35edfb65b881ab8cba82e5bd01640774c4513e52e7433826e73e9c2",
      "meanings": [
        "在……方面"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋にかけては／にかけても",
      "explanation": "在某个领域对能力作出评价，通常是称赞。",
      "notes": "常接谁也比不过、有信心等。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "料理の腕にかけては、うちの父は誰にも負けない。",
          "zh": "论厨艺，我父亲不输任何人。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "彼女は数字の分析にかけては、社内で右に出る者がいない。",
          "zh": "论数字分析，公司里没有人胜过她。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-kakete-wa",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "74d9950f184eadbc78d72090be46b84a15d302a5c61c4f4945534c3192f93cca"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-kotaete",
    "pattern": "〜にこたえて",
    "romaji": "ni kotaete",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "in response to; meeting (expectations, requests)",
    "formation": "Noun + にこたえて / Noun + にこたえる + Noun",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "ファンの声援にこたえて、選手たちは手を振った。",
        "furigana": "ファンの{声援|せいえん}にこたえて、{選手|せんしゅ}たちは{手|て}を{振|ふ}った。",
        "en": "The players waved in response to the fans' cheers."
      },
      {
        "ja": "利用者の要望にこたえて、図書館の開館時間が延長された。",
        "furigana": "{利用|りよう}{者|しゃ}の{要望|ようぼう}にこたえて、{図書館|としょかん}の{開館|かいかん}{時間|じかん}が{延長|えんちょう}された。",
        "en": "In response to users' requests, the library's opening hours were extended."
      },
      {
        "ja": "彼は周囲の期待にこたえる結果を出した。",
        "furigana": "{彼|かれ}は{周囲|しゅうい}の{期待|きたい}にこたえる{結果|けっか}を{出|だ}した。",
        "en": "He produced results that lived up to everyone's expectations."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "relation",
      "formal"
    ],
    "notes": "Used with nouns like 期待, 要望, 声援, 要求. Also written 〜に応えて. Compare 〜に応じて, which means adjusting to a condition.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "209a4e96cbd34f9feb073c19e0647807ab36ed2d998aead42d813fc05674e831",
      "meanings": [
        "响应",
        "不辜负"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋にこたえて／にこたえる＋名词",
      "explanation": "表示回应期待、要求或声援。",
      "notes": "也写作に応えて。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "ファンの声援にこたえて、選手たちは手を振った。",
          "zh": "选手们挥手回应粉丝的声援。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "利用者の要望にこたえて、図書館の開館時間が延長された。",
          "zh": "为响应使用者的要求，图书馆延长了开放时间。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "彼は周囲の期待にこたえる結果を出した。",
          "zh": "他取得了不负众人期待的成绩。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-kotaete",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "bb2f8c6cbb6f1d05416eccf57d87d8ed6a01945c607911c2a24c148187f97dcf"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-sakidatte",
    "pattern": "〜に先立って",
    "reading": "〜にさきだって",
    "romaji": "ni sakidatte",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "prior to; before",
    "formation": "Noun + に先立って / Verb-dict + に先立って / Noun + に先立つ + Noun",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "新作映画の公開に先立って、完成披露試写会が開かれた。",
        "furigana": "{新作|しんさく}{映画|えいが}の{公開|こうかい}に{先立|さきだ}って、{完成|かんせい}{披露|ひろう}{試写|ししゃ}{会|かい}が{開|ひら}かれた。",
        "en": "Prior to the release of the new film, a premiere screening was held."
      },
      {
        "ja": "試合開始に先立ち、全員で黙とうをささげた。",
        "furigana": "{試合|しあい}{開始|かいし}に{先立|さきだ}ち、{全員|ぜんいん}で{黙|もく}とうをささげた。",
        "en": "Before the start of the match, everyone observed a moment of silence."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "time",
      "sequence",
      "formal"
    ],
    "notes": "Formal; for preparations or events that come before an important occasion. 〜に先立ち is the written form.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "8b04d1d734d17e3771a756a58b5f32b6f99253c83ef9f9857f88e52dad45608b",
      "meanings": [
        "在……之前"
      ],
      "formation": "名词／动词辞书形＋に先立って；名词＋に先立つ＋名词",
      "explanation": "表示重要事件之前的准备或其他事件。",
      "notes": "に先立ち较书面。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "新作映画の公開に先立って、完成披露試写会が開かれた。",
          "zh": "新电影上映之前举行了完成披露试映会。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "試合開始に先立ち、全員で黙とうをささげた。",
          "zh": "比赛开始前，全体默哀。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-sakidatte",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "a619a813d2b0ec519e64f497ed8996da23129ffde22d86c4309776fd8fcf80e6"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-shiro-ni-seyo",
    "pattern": "〜にしろ / 〜にせよ",
    "romaji": "ni shiro / ni seyo",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "even if; whether ... or ...; in any case",
    "formation": "Verb-plain / i-Adj / na-Adj / Noun + にしろ・にせよ",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "たとえ冗談にしろ、そんなことを言うべきではない。",
        "furigana": "たとえ{冗談|じょうだん}にしろ、そんなことを{言|い}うべきではない。",
        "en": "Even if it was a joke, you shouldn't say something like that."
      },
      {
        "ja": "参加するにせよしないにせよ、今週中に返事をください。",
        "furigana": "{参加|さんか}するにせよしないにせよ、{今週|こんしゅう}{中|ちゅう}に{返事|へんじ}をください。",
        "en": "Whether you take part or not, please reply by the end of this week."
      },
      {
        "ja": "いずれにせよ、もう一度話し合う必要がある。",
        "furigana": "いずれにせよ、もう{一度|いちど}{話|はな}し{合|あ}う{必要|ひつよう}がある。",
        "en": "In any case, we need to talk it over again."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "concession",
      "formal"
    ],
    "notes": "Same meaning as 〜にしても (N3) but more formal; にせよ is the most written. The paired form AにしろBにしろ means 'whether A or B'.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "078d61b906f137e8a3c8e1a9e9558234912d2c76aa6fe90404fd9ca1e24af0ac",
      "meanings": [
        "即使",
        "无论"
      ],
      "formation": "动词・い形容词普通形＋にしろ／にせよ；な形容词词干・名词＋にしろ／にせよ",
      "explanation": "表示让步，或列举两种情况后作共同判断。",
      "notes": "AにしろBにしろ表示无论A还是B。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "たとえ冗談にしろ、そんなことを言うべきではない。",
          "zh": "即使是开玩笑，也不该说那样的话。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "参加するにせよしないにせよ、今週中に返事をください。",
          "zh": "无论参加与否，请在本周内回复。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "いずれにせよ、もう一度話し合う必要がある。",
          "zh": "无论如何，需要再讨论一次。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-shiro-ni-seyo",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "0b49d9a770918d42c73f4ef669ffc1e46c808b8bfb8166d763d36739c3313ff7"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-sureba-ni-shitara",
    "pattern": "〜にすれば / 〜にしたら",
    "romaji": "ni sureba / ni shitara",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "from the standpoint of; for (someone), (it would seem)",
    "formation": "Noun + にすれば / Noun + にしたら",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "子どもにすれば、親の小言はうるさいだけなのだろう。",
        "furigana": "{子|こ}どもにすれば、{親|おや}の{小言|こごと}はうるさいだけなのだろう。",
        "en": "From a child's point of view, parents' nagging is probably just annoying."
      },
      {
        "ja": "毎日遅くまで残業させられる社員にしたら、たまったものではない。",
        "furigana": "{毎日|まいにち}{遅|おそ}くまで{残業|ざんぎょう}させられる{社員|しゃいん}にしたら、たまったものではない。",
        "en": "For employees made to work late every day, it's unbearable."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "standpoint"
    ],
    "notes": "Imagines how things feel from another person's position (usually not the speaker's). Unlike 〜にとって, it focuses on that person's feelings or opinion.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "473a77cee358368baa29bdcdb87757bba58921fc156cf4e83578a0b368f8735c",
      "meanings": [
        "从……立场看"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋にすれば／にしたら",
      "explanation": "设想从某人的处境看会有怎样的感受。",
      "notes": "常强调该人的感受或意见。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "子どもにすれば、親の小言はうるさいだけなのだろう。",
          "zh": "对孩子来说，父母的唠叨大概只是烦人吧。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "毎日遅くまで残業させられる社員にしたら、たまったものではない。",
          "zh": "对每天被迫加班到很晚的员工来说，实在受不了。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-sureba-ni-shitara",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "9bd7b1a03cbcb8f926e16be242f9136fa2ede15d1a86dff57f488f160c731ead"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-soui-nai",
    "pattern": "〜に相違ない",
    "reading": "〜にそういない",
    "romaji": "ni soui nai",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "without doubt; must be; surely",
    "formation": "Verb-plain / i-Adj / na-Adj / Noun + に相違ない",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "この筆跡は、父のものに相違ない。",
        "furigana": "この{筆跡|ひっせき}は、{父|ちち}のものに{相違|そうい}ない。",
        "en": "This handwriting is without doubt my father's."
      },
      {
        "ja": "彼の証言が事実なら、事件の背後には別の人物がいるに相違ない。",
        "furigana": "{彼|かれ}の{証言|しょうげん}が{事実|じじつ}なら、{事件|じけん}の{背後|はいご}には{別|べつ}の{人物|じんぶつ}がいるに{相違|そうい}ない。",
        "en": "If his testimony is true, there must be someone else behind the incident."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "conjecture",
      "formal",
      "written"
    ],
    "notes": "A written, formal equivalent of 〜に違いない (N3). Also seen on forms: 上記の通り相違ありません ('the above is correct').",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "6777fd22e858557e8f54b17c7971620a9ce32bf78fc30acfb0bd38e9893881a7",
      "meanings": [
        "一定",
        "无疑"
      ],
      "formation": "动词・い形容词普通形＋に相違ない；な形容词词干・名词＋に相違ない",
      "explanation": "表示说话人坚信某事。",
      "notes": "较に違いない正式。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "この筆跡は、父のものに相違ない。",
          "zh": "这笔迹一定是父亲的。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "彼の証言が事実なら、事件の背後には別の人物がいるに相違ない。",
          "zh": "如果他的证词属实，事件背后一定另有其人。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-soui-nai",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "c54785fb28fc0fe547fac35723149f88b8905beeed5ecce78146566c5327ae2e"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-koshita-koto-wa-nai",
    "pattern": "〜に越したことはない",
    "reading": "〜にこしたことはない",
    "romaji": "ni koshita koto wa nai",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "it's best to; nothing is better than",
    "formation": "Verb-dict / Verb-nai / i-Adj / na-Adj / Noun + に越したことはない",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "どんなに健康でも、定期的に検診を受けるに越したことはない。",
        "furigana": "どんなに{健康|けんこう}でも、{定期|ていき}{的|てき}に{検診|けんしん}を{受|う}けるに{越|こ}したことはない。",
        "en": "No matter how healthy you are, it's best to get regular checkups."
      },
      {
        "ja": "旅行の荷物は、軽いに越したことはない。",
        "furigana": "{旅行|りょこう}の{荷物|にもつ}は、{軽|かる}いに{越|こ}したことはない。",
        "en": "When you travel, the lighter your luggage, the better."
      },
      {
        "ja": "住まいは駅に近いに越したことはないが、その分家賃が高くなる。",
        "furigana": "{住|す}まいは{駅|えき}に{近|ちか}いに{越|こ}したことはないが、その{分|ぶん}{家賃|やちん}が{高|たか}くなる。",
        "en": "It's best to live near the station, of course, but the rent goes up accordingly."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "advice",
      "suggestion"
    ],
    "notes": "States a common-sense preference, often followed by が / けれど and a practical reservation. Compare 〜に限る, which is a more personal choice.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "7409fe22a92b7754e926d6203faf2117d5a4caee825d0110721a74a1a89b7c3c",
      "meanings": [
        "最好",
        "再好不过"
      ],
      "formation": "动词辞书形／ない形＋に越したことはない；い形容词普通形＋に越したことはない；な形容词词干・名词＋に越したことはない",
      "explanation": "表示某种做法或状态是最好的选择。",
      "notes": "常接现实上的保留条件。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "どんなに健康でも、定期的に検診を受けるに越したことはない。",
          "zh": "无论多健康，定期体检总是最好的。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "旅行の荷物は、軽いに越したことはない。",
          "zh": "旅行的行李越轻越好。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "住まいは駅に近いに越したことはないが、その分家賃が高くなる。",
          "zh": "住处离车站近最好，但房租也会相应变高。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-koshita-koto-wa-nai",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "66f9e9ee06325a186f2d45a4f1c6033998e3668cd96d7b59b957a53bf96f7ede"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-hoka-naranai",
    "pattern": "〜にほかならない",
    "romaji": "ni hoka naranai",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "nothing other than; none other than; precisely",
    "formation": "Noun + にほかならない / Verb-plain + から + にほかならない",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "今回の成功は、社員一人ひとりの努力の結果にほかならない。",
        "furigana": "{今回|こんかい}の{成功|せいこう}は、{社員|しゃいん}{一人|ひとり}ひとりの{努力|どりょく}の{結果|けっか}にほかならない。",
        "en": "This success is nothing other than the result of each employee's efforts."
      },
      {
        "ja": "彼が厳しく指導するのは、選手の才能を信じているからにほかならない。",
        "furigana": "{彼|かれ}が{厳|きび}しく{指導|しどう}するのは、{選手|せんしゅ}の{才能|さいのう}を{信|しん}じているからにほかならない。",
        "en": "He coaches strictly precisely because he believes in the athletes' talent."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "emphasis",
      "written"
    ],
    "notes": "Strongly asserts that this and nothing else is the case. 〜からにほかならない stresses a reason. Formal/written.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "a59a5c138e8089428c5120eb3060978c3b3992315acd606b1cdbd54b2a6328eb",
      "meanings": [
        "正是",
        "无非是"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋にほかならない；动词普通形＋からにほかならない",
      "explanation": "强烈断言原因或事实正是前项。",
      "notes": "较正式，常用于书面。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "今回の成功は、社員一人ひとりの努力の結果にほかならない。",
          "zh": "这次成功正是每一位员工努力的结果。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "彼が厳しく指導するのは、選手の才能を信じているからにほかならない。",
          "zh": "他严格指导，正是因为相信选手的才能。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-hoka-naranai",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "ff2b2d80112cff164604286068f8dafd64405bae927885db3b82c31a45f76bcf"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-mo-kakawarazu",
    "pattern": "〜にもかかわらず",
    "romaji": "ni mo kakawarazu",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "despite; in spite of; although",
    "formation": "Verb-plain / i-Adj / na-Adj + である / Noun + にもかかわらず",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "悪天候にもかかわらず、大勢の観客が会場に集まった。",
        "furigana": "{悪天候|あくてんこう}にもかかわらず、{大勢|おおぜい}の{観客|かんきゃく}が{会場|かいじょう}に{集|あつ}まった。",
        "en": "Despite the bad weather, a large crowd gathered at the venue."
      },
      {
        "ja": "何度も注意されたにもかかわらず、彼は同じミスを繰り返した。",
        "furigana": "{何|なん}{度|ど}も{注意|ちゅうい}されたにもかかわらず、{彼|かれ}は{同|おな}じミスを{繰|く}り{返|かえ}した。",
        "en": "Despite being warned many times, he repeated the same mistake."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "concession",
      "formal"
    ],
    "notes": "A formal counterpart of 〜のに, common in news and writing; stresses that the result goes against what A would lead one to expect. Don't confuse with 〜にかかわらず (regardless of).",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "b28269040b00f4f1e8d0f1b28b43515def654536a2a26f2f7a699128a88bc11e",
      "meanings": [
        "尽管",
        "虽然"
      ],
      "formation": "动词・い形容词普通形＋にもかかわらず；な形容词词干＋である＋にもかかわらず；名词＋にもかかわらず",
      "explanation": "表示结果与前项通常带来的预期相反。",
      "notes": "不要与表示不受条件限制的にかかわらず混淆。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "悪天候にもかかわらず、大勢の観客が会場に集まった。",
          "zh": "尽管天气恶劣，还是有大批观众聚集在会场。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "何度も注意されたにもかかわらず、彼は同じミスを繰り返した。",
          "zh": "尽管多次受到提醒，他仍反复犯同样的错误。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-mo-kakawarazu",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "7dbdad5fff81f8dfa7f2652d2371180ca44a1e18e5672d88217232590c64ee29"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-atatte",
    "pattern": "〜にあたって",
    "romaji": "ni atatte",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "when; at the time of; on the occasion of (starting something important)",
    "formation": "Noun + にあたって / Verb-dict + にあたって / Noun + にあたっての + Noun",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "新生活を始めるにあたって、必要な物をリストにまとめた。",
        "furigana": "{新|しん}{生活|せいかつ}を{始|はじ}めるにあたって、{必要|ひつよう}な{物|もの}をリストにまとめた。",
        "en": "When starting my new life, I made a list of the things I'd need."
      },
      {
        "ja": "開会にあたり、主催者を代表して一言ご挨拶申し上げます。",
        "furigana": "{開会|かいかい}にあたり、{主催|しゅさい}{者|しゃ}を{代表|だいひょう}して{一言|ひとこと}ご{挨拶|あいさつ}{申|もう}し{上|あ}げます。",
        "en": "On the occasion of the opening, allow me to say a few words on behalf of the organizers."
      },
      {
        "ja": "論文を書くにあたっては、引用のルールを守らなければならない。",
        "furigana": "{論文|ろんぶん}を{書|か}くにあたっては、{引用|いんよう}のルールを{守|まも}らなければならない。",
        "en": "When writing a thesis, you must follow the rules of citation."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "time",
      "formal"
    ],
    "notes": "Formal; used when facing an important undertaking, often with a sense of preparation or resolve. 〜に際して is similar but simply marks the occasion. Written form: 〜にあたり.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "e65c8778c311b123788a93fb1cdb253e547a0a7f44efeeffe45600af4a29d75a",
      "meanings": [
        "在……之际",
        "开始……时"
      ],
      "formation": "名词／动词辞书形＋にあたって；名词＋にあたっての＋名词",
      "explanation": "表示着手重要事项的时刻，常含准备或决心。",
      "notes": "にあたり较书面。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "新生活を始めるにあたって、必要な物をリストにまとめた。",
          "zh": "开始新生活之际，我列出了需要的物品。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "開会にあたり、主催者を代表して一言ご挨拶申し上げます。",
          "zh": "值此开会之际，我代表主办方致辞。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "論文を書くにあたっては、引用のルールを守らなければならない。",
          "zh": "写论文时必须遵守引用规则。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-atatte",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "f1ef8d418e95432ec97a35d8f67c18596c1cfa87658328669551f1bf9196df02"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-oite-ni-okeru",
    "pattern": "〜において / 〜における",
    "romaji": "ni oite / ni okeru",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "in; at; in the field of (formal)",
    "formation": "Noun + において / Noun + における + Noun",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "卒業式は大講堂において行われます。",
        "furigana": "{卒業|そつぎょう}{式|しき}は{大|だい}{講堂|こうどう}において{行|おこな}われます。",
        "en": "The graduation ceremony will be held in the main auditorium."
      },
      {
        "ja": "現代社会における家族の役割について考えてみたい。",
        "furigana": "{現代|げんだい}{社会|しゃかい}における{家族|かぞく}の{役割|やくわり}について{考|かんが}えてみたい。",
        "en": "I'd like to consider the role of the family in modern society."
      },
      {
        "ja": "彼女はデザインの分野において高く評価されている。",
        "furigana": "{彼女|かのじょ}はデザインの{分野|ぶんや}において{高|たか}く{評価|ひょうか}されている。",
        "en": "She is highly regarded in the field of design."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "range",
      "formal",
      "written"
    ],
    "notes": "A formal version of で for places, times, fields or situations. Before a noun, the form is 〜における.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "66907b0d3a29a0e9f51d7e6d62b2d8c4b67b1076ad014fdcbcad5fa074d2d193",
      "meanings": [
        "在",
        "于",
        "在……领域"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋において；名词＋における＋名词",
      "explanation": "正式地表示地点、时间、领域或情况。",
      "notes": "修饰名词时用における。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "卒業式は大講堂において行われます。",
          "zh": "毕业典礼将在大礼堂举行。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "現代社会における家族の役割について考えてみたい。",
          "zh": "我想思考现代社会中家庭的作用。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "彼女はデザインの分野において高く評価されている。",
          "zh": "她在设计领域受到高度评价。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-oite-ni-okeru",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "cbc637e0ea2dbd935a7071411c7b395dfd16c4cbac0a32ec2528d94562ba2ee8"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-kakawarazu",
    "pattern": "〜にかかわらず",
    "romaji": "ni kakawarazu",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "regardless of; irrespective of",
    "formation": "Noun + にかかわらず / Verb-dict + Verb-nai + にかかわらず",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "このセミナーは、経験の有無にかかわらず、どなたでも参加できます。",
        "furigana": "このセミナーは、{経験|けいけん}の{有無|うむ}にかかわらず、どなたでも{参加|さんか}できます。",
        "en": "Anyone can join this seminar, regardless of experience."
      },
      {
        "ja": "天候にかかわらず、試合は予定通り行います。",
        "furigana": "{天候|てんこう}にかかわらず、{試合|しあい}は{予定|よてい}{通|どお}り{行|おこな}います。",
        "en": "The match will go ahead as scheduled regardless of the weather."
      },
      {
        "ja": "出席するしないにかかわらず、必ず返信してください。",
        "furigana": "{出席|しゅっせき}するしないにかかわらず、{必|かなら}ず{返信|へんしん}してください。",
        "en": "Please be sure to reply whether or not you will attend."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "concession",
      "range",
      "formal"
    ],
    "notes": "Used with nouns implying a range or an opposite pair (年齢, 天候, 有無, 男女). Very close to 〜を問わず. Don't confuse with 〜にもかかわらず (despite).",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "b670b1e2ac23f6c45f19f8d23878b3293d83ee11ff79052f0286edceaa4cc126",
      "meanings": [
        "无论",
        "不论"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋にかかわらず；动词辞书形＋ない形＋にかかわらず",
      "explanation": "表示不受前项条件影响。",
      "notes": "不要与表示尽管的にもかかわらず混淆。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "このセミナーは、経験の有無にかかわらず、どなたでも参加できます。",
          "zh": "不论是否有经验，任何人都能参加这个研讨会。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "天候にかかわらず、試合は予定通り行います。",
          "zh": "无论天气如何，比赛都将按计划举行。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "出席するしないにかかわらず、必ず返信してください。",
          "zh": "无论出席与否，请务必回复。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-kakawarazu",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "3d74e48e5f3b771bd7cb11e7651e08a59b62bd7ee37fa55889e9f17c7cf4a607"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-kakawaru",
    "pattern": "〜にかかわる",
    "romaji": "ni kakawaru",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "affecting; concerning (something important); relating to",
    "formation": "Noun + にかかわる",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "これは人の命にかかわる問題だから、慎重に判断しなければならない。",
        "furigana": "これは{人|ひと}の{命|いのち}にかかわる{問題|もんだい}だから、{慎重|しんちょう}に{判断|はんだん}しなければならない。",
        "en": "This is a matter of life and death, so we must judge carefully."
      },
      {
        "ja": "会社の信用にかかわるようなミスは、絶対に避けたい。",
        "furigana": "{会社|かいしゃ}の{信用|しんよう}にかかわるようなミスは、{絶対|ぜったい}に{避|さ}けたい。",
        "en": "I absolutely want to avoid any mistake that could damage the company's reputation."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "relation"
    ],
    "notes": "Used for things with serious consequences: 命, 名誉, 信用, 将来. Also written 〜に関わる.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "5bad70b9c66dcac178e211dc2c65c159bd2f532b821b63d708304adc2d512964",
      "meanings": [
        "关系到",
        "涉及"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋にかかわる",
      "explanation": "表示关系到重要事物或严重后果。",
      "notes": "常接生命、名誉、信用等。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "これは人の命にかかわる問題だから、慎重に判断しなければならない。",
          "zh": "这是关系到人命的问题，必须谨慎判断。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "会社の信用にかかわるようなミスは、絶対に避けたい。",
          "zh": "我绝对想避免影响公司信誉的错误。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-kakawaru",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "9d6d796eca54169114248cdfac52ae151cc35d8fb672a344f88ac2b080943152"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-tsuki",
    "pattern": "〜につき",
    "romaji": "ni tsuki",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "per; for each; due to (in formal notices)",
    "formation": "Noun + につき",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "駐車料金は、一時間につき三百円です。",
        "furigana": "{駐車|ちゅうしゃ}{料金|りょうきん}は、{一|いち}{時間|じかん}につき{三百|さんびゃく}{円|えん}です。",
        "en": "Parking costs 300 yen per hour."
      },
      {
        "ja": "本日は定休日につき、お休みさせていただきます。",
        "furigana": "{本日|ほんじつ}は{定休|ていきゅう}{日|び}につき、お{休|やす}みさせていただきます。",
        "en": "We are closed today as it is our regular holiday."
      },
      {
        "ja": "工事中につき、この先は通行止めです。",
        "furigana": "{工事|こうじ}{中|ちゅう}につき、この{先|さき}は{通行止|つうこうど}めです。",
        "en": "Due to construction, the road ahead is closed."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "reason",
      "quantity",
      "formal"
    ],
    "notes": "Two separate uses: 'per' with quantities, and 'because of' on notices and signs (工事中につき). The reason use is very formal.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "51a7366d05755929755f39dd0dad4b4cbe293daaee4337739e9aab0bc58d01dd",
      "meanings": [
        "每",
        "由于"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋につき",
      "explanation": "表示每个单位，或在正式通知中表示原因。",
      "notes": "表示原因时多用于告示。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "駐車料金は、一時間につき三百円です。",
          "zh": "停车费每小时三百日元。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "本日は定休日につき、お休みさせていただきます。",
          "zh": "今天是定休日，暂停营业。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "工事中につき、この先は通行止めです。",
          "zh": "因施工，前方禁止通行。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-tsuki",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "2a64933b16787c5a324a4280725dd853063fd7fe9117f279a542ae7c6a0458f8"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ni-mukete",
    "pattern": "〜に向けて",
    "reading": "〜にむけて",
    "romaji": "ni mukete",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "toward; aimed at; in preparation for; addressed to",
    "formation": "Noun + に向けて / Noun + に向けた + Noun",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "来年の全国大会に向けて、毎日練習に励んでいる。",
        "furigana": "{来年|らいねん}の{全国|ぜんこく}{大会|たいかい}に{向|む}けて、{毎日|まいにち}{練習|れんしゅう}に{励|はげ}んでいる。",
        "en": "We're practicing hard every day for next year's national tournament."
      },
      {
        "ja": "政府は、温室効果ガス削減に向けた新しい計画を発表した。",
        "furigana": "{政府|せいふ}は、{温室|おんしつ}{効果|こうか}ガス{削減|さくげん}に{向|む}けた{新|あたら}しい{計画|けいかく}を{発表|はっぴょう}した。",
        "en": "The government announced a new plan aimed at reducing greenhouse gases."
      },
      {
        "ja": "大統領は国民に向けてメッセージを発表した。",
        "furigana": "{大統領|だいとうりょう}は{国民|こくみん}に{向|む}けてメッセージを{発表|はっぴょう}した。",
        "en": "The president issued a message addressed to the nation."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "purpose",
      "relation"
    ],
    "notes": "Marks a goal or event being worked toward, or the audience something is directed at. Different from 〜向け (N3), 'designed for'.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "b6d4a218d3beb83f7741c9043d78bbfed17c221b9122632d6deb71ac860f75fa",
      "meanings": [
        "面向",
        "朝着",
        "为……准备"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋に向けて／に向けた＋名词",
      "explanation": "表示面向目标、事件或对象开展行动。",
      "notes": "与表示为某对象设计的向け有区别。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "来年の全国大会に向けて、毎日練習に励んでいる。",
          "zh": "我为明年的全国大赛每天努力练习。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "政府は、温室効果ガス削減に向けた新しい計画を発表した。",
          "zh": "政府公布了减少温室气体的新计划。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "大統領は国民に向けてメッセージを発表した。",
          "zh": "总统向国民发表了讲话。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ni-mukete",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "1f78203421f4fc6fa4cb00951f389a986cbc2072e629d577f17cef4d80ca7f58"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "no-moto-de-no-moto-ni",
    "pattern": "〜のもとで / 〜のもとに",
    "romaji": "no moto de / no moto ni",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "under (guidance, influence, a rule); with",
    "formation": "Noun + のもとで / Noun + のもとに",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "私は大学院で、有名な教授のもとで研究を続けた。",
        "furigana": "{私|わたし}は{大学院|だいがくいん}で、{有名|ゆうめい}な{教授|きょうじゅ}のもとで{研究|けんきゅう}を{続|つづ}けた。",
        "en": "In graduate school, I continued my research under a famous professor."
      },
      {
        "ja": "明るい太陽のもとで、子どもたちが元気に遊んでいる。",
        "furigana": "{明|あか}るい{太陽|たいよう}のもとで、{子|こ}どもたちが{元気|げんき}に{遊|あそ}んでいる。",
        "en": "Children are playing happily under the bright sun."
      },
      {
        "ja": "すべての国民は、法のもとに平等である。",
        "furigana": "すべての{国民|こくみん}は、{法|ほう}のもとに{平等|びょうどう}である。",
        "en": "All citizens are equal under the law."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "relation",
      "state",
      "formal"
    ],
    "notes": "Under someone's guidance, protection or influence, or under a rule or condition. Often written 〜の下で / 〜の下に.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "93be89a258bf1a2a245a730c7e4b68a54cd2255bc62ef585ae409894e715d4a3",
      "meanings": [
        "在……之下"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋のもとで／のもとに",
      "explanation": "表示在指导、影响、规则或条件之下。",
      "notes": "也写作の下で、の下に。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "私は大学院で、有名な教授のもとで研究を続けた。",
          "zh": "我在研究生院著名教授的指导下继续研究。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "明るい太陽のもとで、子どもたちが元気に遊んでいる。",
          "zh": "孩子们在明亮的阳光下欢快地玩耍。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "すべての国民は、法のもとに平等である。",
          "zh": "所有国民在法律面前一律平等。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#no-moto-de-no-moto-ni",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "63adabe1b962ae32a5bfb3ccb2cd1f20dffc870c426701c2c1e37e020346d83c"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "nuki-de-nuki-ni",
    "pattern": "〜抜きで / 〜抜きに",
    "reading": "〜ぬきで / 〜ぬきに",
    "romaji": "nuki de / nuki ni",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "without; leaving out",
    "formation": "Noun + 抜きで / Noun + 抜きに / Noun + 抜きの + Noun",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "今日は仕事の話抜きで、ゆっくり楽しみましょう。",
        "furigana": "{今日|きょう}は{仕事|しごと}の{話|はなし}{抜|ぬ}きで、ゆっくり{楽|たの}しみましょう。",
        "en": "Let's leave work talk out of it today and just relax and enjoy ourselves."
      },
      {
        "ja": "彼の協力抜きには、このプロジェクトは成功しなかっただろう。",
        "furigana": "{彼|かれ}の{協力|きょうりょく}{抜|ぬ}きには、このプロジェクトは{成功|せいこう}しなかっただろう。",
        "en": "Without his cooperation, this project probably wouldn't have succeeded."
      },
      {
        "ja": "朝食抜きで出勤する人が増えている。",
        "furigana": "{朝食|ちょうしょく}{抜|ぬ}きで{出勤|しゅっきん}する{人|ひと}が{増|ふ}えている。",
        "en": "More and more people are going to work without breakfast."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "exclusion",
      "manner"
    ],
    "notes": "Leaves out something normally included. 〜抜きには〜ない / 〜を抜きにしては〜ない means 'can't ... without'.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "872c405a736152eed81de388722f9694bc23ae5b299de0e27ed2940f2625e11c",
      "meanings": [
        "不包括",
        "没有"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋抜きで／抜きに；名词＋抜きの＋名词",
      "explanation": "省去通常包括的事物。",
      "notes": "抜きには〜ない表示没有前项就不能成立。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "今日は仕事の話抜きで、ゆっくり楽しみましょう。",
          "zh": "今天不谈工作，轻松享受吧。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "彼の協力抜きには、このプロジェクトは成功しなかっただろう。",
          "zh": "没有他的合作，这个项目恐怕不会成功。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "朝食抜きで出勤する人が増えている。",
          "zh": "不吃早饭就去上班的人越来越多。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#nuki-de-nuki-ni",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "1df6167c78b41eb5919452c6595582cb6fd36342467ca57cd5d2feac6e2a81ab"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "o-komete",
    "pattern": "〜をこめて",
    "romaji": "o komete",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "with (feeling); full of; putting ... into",
    "formation": "Noun + をこめて",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "母の誕生日に、感謝の気持ちをこめて手紙を書いた。",
        "furigana": "{母|はは}の{誕生|たんじょう}{日|び}に、{感謝|かんしゃ}の{気持|きも}ちをこめて{手紙|てがみ}を{書|か}いた。",
        "en": "For my mother's birthday, I wrote her a letter full of gratitude."
      },
      {
        "ja": "職人が一つ一つ心をこめて作った器です。",
        "furigana": "{職人|しょくにん}が{一|ひと}つ{一|ひと}つ{心|こころ}をこめて{作|つく}った{器|うつわ}です。",
        "en": "These bowls were made one by one, with great care, by craftsmen."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "emotion",
      "manner"
    ],
    "notes": "Used with feelings or intentions (愛, 感謝, 願い, 心). Also written 〜を込めて.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "6fb68b4291a54283977d7f8e7fc800f0c21e927ee1a7febc396177dfb6f1e2d9",
      "meanings": [
        "怀着",
        "寄托"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋をこめて",
      "explanation": "表示将感情或心意注入某行为。",
      "notes": "也写作を込めて。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "母の誕生日に、感謝の気持ちをこめて手紙を書いた。",
          "zh": "母亲生日时，我怀着感激写了一封信。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "職人が一つ一つ心をこめて作った器です。",
          "zh": "这些器皿是工匠逐一用心制作的。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#o-komete",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "a6fab4bacea442e51ca8cc8c9aebc6a17b6df95f7d1cb0f5aa673e65cf6ce592"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "o-chuushin-ni",
    "pattern": "〜を中心に",
    "reading": "〜をちゅうしんに",
    "romaji": "o chuushin ni",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "centered on; focusing on; mainly",
    "formation": "Noun + を中心に / Noun + を中心として / Noun + を中心とした + Noun",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "今回の地震では、沿岸部を中心に大きな被害が出た。",
        "furigana": "{今回|こんかい}の{地震|じしん}では、{沿岸|えんがん}{部|ぶ}を{中心|ちゅうしん}に{大|おお}きな{被害|ひがい}が{出|で}た。",
        "en": "In this earthquake, serious damage occurred mainly in coastal areas."
      },
      {
        "ja": "この講座では、会話を中心に実践的な日本語を学びます。",
        "furigana": "この{講座|こうざ}では、{会話|かいわ}を{中心|ちゅうしん}に{実践|じっせん}{的|てき}な{日本語|にほんご}を{学|まな}びます。",
        "en": "In this course, you'll learn practical Japanese with a focus on conversation."
      },
      {
        "ja": "若者を中心とした新しいファッションが広がっている。",
        "furigana": "{若者|わかもの}を{中心|ちゅうしん}とした{新|あたら}しいファッションが{広|ひろ}がっている。",
        "en": "New fashions popular mainly among young people are spreading."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "range",
      "relation"
    ],
    "notes": "A is the core or main part of a wider area, group or activity.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "cf71da08da2059f693b0fe8d6bf48d369e96fcaff571da4fcd0095ddda4d32fc",
      "meanings": [
        "以……为中心",
        "主要"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋を中心に／を中心として；名词＋を中心とした＋名词",
      "explanation": "表示某事物是更大范围或活动的中心。",
      "notes": "常用于地区、群体或主题。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "今回の地震では、沿岸部を中心に大きな被害が出た。",
          "zh": "这次地震以沿岸地区为中心造成重大损失。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "この講座では、会話を中心に実践的な日本語を学びます。",
          "zh": "本课程以会话为主学习实用日语。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "若者を中心とした新しいファッションが広がっている。",
          "zh": "以年轻人为中心的新时尚正在传播。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#o-chuushin-ni",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "f0b690e2a671d1cfb5f74eec8767eaa25d2996834ff7c725e757e2f75d50dfce"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "o-moto-ni",
    "pattern": "〜をもとに",
    "romaji": "o moto ni",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "based on; using ... as a basis or source",
    "formation": "Noun + をもとに / Noun + をもとにして / Noun + をもとにした + Noun",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "この小説は、作者自身の体験をもとに書かれている。",
        "furigana": "この{小説|しょうせつ}は、{作者|さくしゃ}{自身|じしん}の{体験|たいけん}をもとに{書|か}かれている。",
        "en": "This novel is based on the author's own experiences."
      },
      {
        "ja": "集めたデータをもとにして、グラフを作成した。",
        "furigana": "{集|あつ}めたデータをもとにして、グラフを{作成|さくせい}した。",
        "en": "I made a graph based on the data I had collected."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "relation",
      "means"
    ],
    "notes": "A is the material or hint from which something new is made. 〜に基づいて is used when strictly following a rule or fact as a standard.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "7f1a9d9fe18df6001dd539a0dceb23e8a2503a1c1ed868e33c5dbff0f7a884f4",
      "meanings": [
        "以……为基础"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋をもとに／をもとにして；名词＋をもとにした＋名词",
      "explanation": "表示以某材料或经历为基础创作或制作。",
      "notes": "に基づいて更侧重遵循标准或事实。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "この小説は、作者自身の体験をもとに書かれている。",
          "zh": "这部小说以作者本人的经历为基础写成。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "集めたデータをもとにして、グラフを作成した。",
          "zh": "根据收集的数据制作了图表。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#o-moto-ni",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "100f8bef21184216ebf996acb508103c05da53aa4a9a1ab7459a848d9f88c487"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "o-towazu",
    "pattern": "〜を問わず",
    "reading": "〜をとわず",
    "romaji": "o towazu",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "regardless of; irrespective of",
    "formation": "Noun + を問わず",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "この仕事は、年齢や経験を問わず応募できます。",
        "furigana": "この{仕事|しごと}は、{年齢|ねんれい}や{経験|けいけん}を{問|と}わず{応募|おうぼ}できます。",
        "en": "Anyone can apply for this job regardless of age or experience."
      },
      {
        "ja": "この曲は国内外を問わず、多くの人々に愛されている。",
        "furigana": "この{曲|きょく}は{国内外|こくないがい}を{問|と}わず、{多|おお}くの{人々|ひとびと}に{愛|あい}されている。",
        "en": "This song is loved by many people both in Japan and abroad."
      },
      {
        "ja": "救急隊員は、昼夜を問わず出動に備えている。",
        "furigana": "{救急|きゅうきゅう}{隊員|たいいん}は、{昼夜|ちゅうや}を{問|と}わず{出動|しゅつどう}に{備|そな}えている。",
        "en": "Paramedics are ready to respond day or night."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "range",
      "formal"
    ],
    "notes": "Used with nouns implying a range or an opposite pair (男女, 昼夜, 国内外). Very close to 〜にかかわらず; を問わず is typical of job ads and notices.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "dfd53b0b90292e9a486aedf8bb821f468a110d96243e789a361baf3063380814",
      "meanings": [
        "不论",
        "无论"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋を問わず",
      "explanation": "表示不受某个范围或对立条件限制。",
      "notes": "常见于招聘广告和通知。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "この仕事は、年齢や経験を問わず応募できます。",
          "zh": "这份工作不论年龄和经验都可申请。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "この曲は国内外を問わず、多くの人々に愛されている。",
          "zh": "这首曲子不论国内外都受到许多人喜爱。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "救急隊員は、昼夜を問わず出動に備えている。",
          "zh": "急救人员不分昼夜，随时准备出动。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#o-towazu",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "345b81b2e18f25022ad071d2eafdbd6ebed73c7497b606b61a32ef9519644928"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "o-hajime",
    "pattern": "〜をはじめ",
    "romaji": "o hajime",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "starting with; including; such as (a representative example)",
    "formation": "Noun + をはじめ / Noun + をはじめとして / Noun + をはじめとする + Noun",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "京都には、金閣寺をはじめ、多くの有名な寺がある。",
        "furigana": "{京都|きょうと}には、{金閣寺|きんかくじ}をはじめ、{多|おお}くの{有名|ゆうめい}な{寺|てら}がある。",
        "en": "Kyoto has many famous temples, including Kinkakuji."
      },
      {
        "ja": "社長をはじめとして、社員全員がこの計画に賛成した。",
        "furigana": "{社長|しゃちょう}をはじめとして、{社員|しゃいん}{全員|ぜんいん}がこの{計画|けいかく}に{賛成|さんせい}した。",
        "en": "Everyone in the company, starting with the president, agreed to this plan."
      },
      {
        "ja": "米をはじめとする農産物の価格が上昇している。",
        "furigana": "{米|こめ}をはじめとする{農産物|のうさんぶつ}の{価格|かかく}が{上昇|じょうしょう}している。",
        "en": "Prices of farm products, rice among them, are rising."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "example",
      "addition"
    ],
    "notes": "Names the most representative member of a group, then refers to the group as a whole. The main clause covers many items, not just A.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "c98bf207380820e9910082e1045565a3c423adb66900fdd29debdc373075c723",
      "meanings": [
        "以……为首",
        "包括"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋をはじめ／をはじめとして；名词＋をはじめとする＋名词",
      "explanation": "列出最具代表性的成员，再指其所属的整体。",
      "notes": "后项不只限于前项。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "京都には、金閣寺をはじめ、多くの有名な寺がある。",
          "zh": "京都有以金阁寺为首的许多著名寺院。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "社長をはじめとして、社員全員がこの計画に賛成した。",
          "zh": "以社长为首，全体员工都赞成这个计划。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "米をはじめとする農産物の価格が上昇している。",
          "zh": "以大米为代表的农产品价格正在上涨。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#o-hajime",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "864f58cfdcbe6e6b028c58729caffb58d9d0a4f40b96fab4e71d98b302cd7ff5"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "o-to-shite",
    "pattern": "〜を〜として",
    "romaji": "o ... to shite",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "treating (A) as (B); with A as B",
    "formation": "Noun + を + Noun + として / Noun + を + Noun + とする",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "この大会は、地域の活性化を目的として開かれている。",
        "furigana": "この{大会|たいかい}は、{地域|ちいき}の{活性|かっせい}{化|か}を{目的|もくてき}として{開|ひら}かれている。",
        "en": "This event is held with the aim of revitalizing the local area."
      },
      {
        "ja": "私たちのチームは、営業部の山口さんをリーダーとして新しい企画に取り組んでいる。",
        "furigana": "{私|わたし}たちのチームは、{営業|えいぎょう}{部|ぶ}の{山口|やまぐち}さんをリーダーとして{新|あたら}しい{企画|きかく}に{取|と}り{組|く}んでいる。",
        "en": "Our team is working on a new project with Ms. Yamaguchi from sales as leader."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "standpoint",
      "manner"
    ],
    "notes": "Puts A in the role or function of B; common B nouns are 目的, 目標, 中心, 対象, 条件. 〜を〜にして is a more casual variant.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "7b717d9a9bccd75497b6f5b3073373d9708b559c8cb1e1319850ab7586281736",
      "meanings": [
        "以……为……"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋を＋名词＋として／とする",
      "explanation": "表示将前项置于某个角色或功能。",
      "notes": "常用作目的、目标、中心或对象等。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "この大会は、地域の活性化を目的として開かれている。",
          "zh": "本次大会以振兴地区为目的举办。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "私たちのチームは、営業部の山口さんをリーダーとして新しい企画に取り組んでいる。",
          "zh": "我们团队以营业部的山口为负责人开展新项目。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#o-to-shite",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "9b6f473fbf8924dbce476c3bb0b5d2ab16b88f9abbe888fbabcfecf50891d258"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ka-to-iu-to",
    "pattern": "〜かというと",
    "romaji": "ka to iu to",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "if you ask whether (actually, not); the reason why ... is",
    "formation": "Verb-plain / i-Adj / na-Adj / Noun + かというと / Question word + … + かというと",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "高い料理ならおいしいかというと、必ずしもそうではない。",
        "furigana": "{高|たか}い{料理|りょうり}ならおいしいかというと、{必|かなら}ずしもそうではない。",
        "en": "Is expensive food always delicious? Not necessarily."
      },
      {
        "ja": "なぜこの仕事を選んだかというと、人の役に立ちたかったからです。",
        "furigana": "なぜこの{仕事|しごと}を{選|えら}んだかというと、{人|ひと}の{役|やく}に{立|た}ちたかったからです。",
        "en": "The reason I chose this job is that I wanted to help people."
      },
      {
        "ja": "では、彼の意見に全面的に賛成かというと、そういうわけでもない。",
        "furigana": "では、{彼|かれ}の{意見|いけん}に{全面|ぜんめん}{的|てき}に{賛成|さんせい}かというと、そういうわけでもない。",
        "en": "But does that mean I fully agree with his opinion? Not exactly."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "question",
      "topic"
    ],
    "notes": "With a question word (なぜ, どうして) it introduces an explanation. Without one, it raises a question only to deny the easy assumption (〜かというと、そうではない). Also 〜かといえば.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "1185a08a16adc6b86c5b759d4fbe8372d2f24a4537f32e286bb953af12e0b716",
      "meanings": [
        "要说是否",
        "为什么"
      ],
      "formation": "句子＋かというと；疑问词＋句子＋かというと",
      "explanation": "提出问题，再否定简单判断或说明原因。",
      "notes": "也可用かといえば。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "高い料理ならおいしいかというと、必ずしもそうではない。",
          "zh": "要说贵的菜一定好吃，也未必如此。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "なぜこの仕事を選んだかというと、人の役に立ちたかったからです。",
          "zh": "为什么选择这份工作，是因为我想帮助别人。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "では、彼の意見に全面的に賛成かというと、そういうわけでもない。",
          "zh": "那么要说我完全赞同他的意见，也不是这样。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ka-to-iu-to",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "2c82140368a9f881c5ad210e808d81a84d4026557bd8b0ac4250145c260fde87"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ka-to-omottara-ka-to-omou-to",
    "pattern": "〜かと思ったら / 〜かと思うと",
    "reading": "〜かとおもったら / 〜かとおもうと",
    "romaji": "ka to omottara / ka to omou to",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "just when; no sooner than; the moment",
    "formation": "Verb-ta + かと思ったら / Verb-ta + かと思うと",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "空が急に暗くなったかと思ったら、激しい雨が降り出した。",
        "furigana": "{空|そら}が{急|きゅう}に{暗|くら}くなったかと{思|おも}ったら、{激|はげ}しい{雨|あめ}が{降|ふ}り{出|だ}した。",
        "en": "No sooner had the sky suddenly gone dark than it started to pour."
      },
      {
        "ja": "息子は帰ってきたかと思うと、すぐにまた遊びに出かけた。",
        "furigana": "{息子|むすこ}は{帰|かえ}ってきたかと{思|おも}うと、すぐにまた{遊|あそ}びに{出|で}かけた。",
        "en": "My son had no sooner come home than he went straight back out to play."
      },
      {
        "ja": "やっと静かになったかと思ったら、また隣の工事が始まった。",
        "furigana": "やっと{静|しず}かになったかと{思|おも}ったら、また{隣|となり}の{工事|こうじ}が{始|はじ}まった。",
        "en": "Just when I thought it had finally gotten quiet, the construction next door started up again."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "time",
      "sequence",
      "surprise"
    ],
    "notes": "B follows A immediately and unexpectedly. It describes what the speaker observes, so it isn't used for the speaker's own actions.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "0948c296ed2d258257b9a0c45f306b54e297088ee12f35319bc2e3537fae01a7",
      "meanings": [
        "刚……就",
        "一……就"
      ],
      "formation": "动词た形＋かと思ったら／かと思うと",
      "explanation": "表示前项刚发生，后项就意外地紧接着发生。",
      "notes": "多描述观察到的事件。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "空が急に暗くなったかと思ったら、激しい雨が降り出した。",
          "zh": "天空刚突然变暗，就下起了大雨。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "息子は帰ってきたかと思うと、すぐにまた遊びに出かけた。",
          "zh": "儿子刚回家，马上又出去玩了。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "やっと静かになったかと思ったら、また隣の工事が始まった。",
          "zh": "刚安静下来，隔壁的施工又开始了。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ka-to-omottara-ka-to-omou-to",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "f935912355950f1f8f2e59eed5b714af8f53c657d59cc432c5da3d68b25ff046"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ka-nai-ka-no-uchi-ni",
    "pattern": "〜か〜ないかのうちに",
    "romaji": "ka ... nai ka no uchi ni",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "as soon as; barely ... when",
    "formation": "Verb-dict + か + Verb-nai + かのうちに / Verb-ta + か + Verb-nai + かのうちに",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "ベルが鳴るか鳴らないかのうちに、生徒たちは教室を飛び出した。",
        "furigana": "ベルが{鳴|な}るか{鳴|な}らないかのうちに、{生徒|せいと}たちは{教室|きょうしつ}を{飛|と}び{出|だ}した。",
        "en": "The bell had barely rung when the students rushed out of the classroom."
      },
      {
        "ja": "彼は布団に入ったか入らないかのうちに、いびきをかき始めた。",
        "furigana": "{彼|かれ}は{布団|ふとん}に{入|はい}ったか{入|はい}らないかのうちに、いびきをかき{始|はじ}めた。",
        "en": "He had barely gotten into bed when he started snoring."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "time",
      "simultaneity"
    ],
    "notes": "The same verb is repeated in positive and negative: it's unclear whether A has even finished before B happens. Describes observed events.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "2d0c9fc2f19308c2a15fae011dd2647011c5992224ebaa48b6c8e02148b6631e",
      "meanings": [
        "刚……就",
        "还没来得及"
      ],
      "formation": "动词辞书形＋か＋同一动词ない形＋かのうちに；动词た形＋か＋同一动词ない形＋かのうちに",
      "explanation": "表示前项似乎还没完全结束，后项就发生。",
      "notes": "通常重复同一个动词。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "ベルが鳴るか鳴らないかのうちに、生徒たちは教室を飛び出した。",
          "zh": "铃声刚响，学生们就冲出了教室。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "彼は布団に入ったか入らないかのうちに、いびきをかき始めた。",
          "zh": "他刚钻进被窝就开始打鼾。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ka-nai-ka-no-uchi-ni",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "b4f96d19cf7288e64491c11bbf1300ef977cb4a6cab29eb91765022bdd60214f"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "kiri",
    "pattern": "〜きり",
    "romaji": "kiri",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "since (and nothing after); only; just",
    "formation": "Verb-ta + きり / Noun + きり",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "兄は十年前に家を出たきり、一度も連絡をよこさない。",
        "furigana": "{兄|あに}は{十|じゅう}{年|ねん}{前|まえ}に{家|いえ}を{出|で}たきり、{一|いち}{度|ど}も{連絡|れんらく}をよこさない。",
        "en": "My brother left home ten years ago and hasn't been in touch once since."
      },
      {
        "ja": "今度の休みは、久しぶりに二人きりで旅行したい。",
        "furigana": "{今度|こんど}の{休|やす}みは、{久|ひさ}しぶりに{二人|ふたり}きりで{旅行|りょこう}したい。",
        "en": "For our next holiday, I'd like us to take a trip, just the two of us, for the first time in ages."
      },
      {
        "ja": "チャンスは一度きりだから、絶対に失敗できない。",
        "furigana": "チャンスは{一|いち}{度|ど}きりだから、{絶対|ぜったい}に{失敗|しっぱい}できない。",
        "en": "There's only one chance, so I absolutely can't fail."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "limitation",
      "time"
    ],
    "notes": "Verb-ta + きり: something happened and the expected follow-up never came (often with ない). Noun + きり: 'only' (一度きり, 二人きり). Casual: 〜っきり.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "64b8968c7b0b43682c9cc595da36f7352d89648b1c8dd01c7b07edc64385a245",
      "meanings": [
        "自从……再没",
        "仅仅"
      ],
      "formation": "动词た形＋きり；名词＋きり",
      "explanation": "表示某事之后没有后续，或表示只有某个数量。",
      "notes": "口语可说っきり。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "兄は十年前に家を出たきり、一度も連絡をよこさない。",
          "zh": "哥哥十年前离家后就再也没有联系过。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "今度の休みは、久しぶりに二人きりで旅行したい。",
          "zh": "下次休假我想久违地和你两个人旅行。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "チャンスは一度きりだから、絶対に失敗できない。",
          "zh": "机会只有一次，绝不能失败。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#kiri",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "d2e320bf3a4c10653a4cdb634ac5ef159770d97e96522ff059adc913765e5f5c"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "ge",
    "pattern": "〜げ",
    "romaji": "ge",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "seeming; looking (as if); with an air of",
    "formation": "i-Adj stem + げ / na-Adj + げ / Verb-stem + たげ",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "彼女は窓の外を寂しげに見つめていた。",
        "furigana": "{彼女|かのじょ}は{窓|まど}の{外|そと}を{寂|さび}しげに{見|み}つめていた。",
        "en": "She was gazing out the window with a lonely look."
      },
      {
        "ja": "少年は得意げな顔で、描いた絵を見せてくれた。",
        "furigana": "{少年|しょうねん}は{得意|とくい}げな{顔|かお}で、{描|えが}いた{絵|え}を{見|み}せてくれた。",
        "en": "The boy proudly showed me the picture he had drawn."
      },
      {
        "ja": "何か言いたげな様子だったが、彼は黙って帰っていった。",
        "furigana": "{何|なに}か{言|い}いたげな{様子|ようす}だったが、{彼|かれ}は{黙|だま}って{帰|かえ}っていった。",
        "en": "He looked as if he wanted to say something, but he left without a word."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "appearance",
      "emotion",
      "written"
    ],
    "notes": "Describes a feeling visible in someone's face or manner; conjugates like a na-adjective (〜げな, 〜げに). Rather literary.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "cc114c9137ea3546c75a1487703fc243386f04664beaadca9e70c0ef1f7af512",
      "meanings": [
        "显得",
        "一副……样子"
      ],
      "formation": "い形容词词干＋げ；な形容词词干＋げ；动词ます形去ます＋たげ",
      "explanation": "表示从表情或举止中看出某种感情。",
      "notes": "像な形容词一样使用，如げな、げに。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "彼女は窓の外を寂しげに見つめていた。",
          "zh": "她寂寞地望着窗外。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "少年は得意げな顔で、描いた絵を見せてくれた。",
          "zh": "男孩一脸得意地给我看他画的画。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "何か言いたげな様子だったが、彼は黙って帰っていった。",
          "zh": "他看起来似乎想说什么，却默默回去了。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#ge",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "505fb11054f79a1f29dc1920b330f12ab57b1ba17aecbc42554154df50a186d6"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "kko-nai",
    "pattern": "〜っこない",
    "romaji": "kko nai",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "no way; there's absolutely no chance",
    "formation": "Verb-stem + っこない",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "こんな量の仕事、一日で終わりっこないよ。",
        "furigana": "こんな{量|りょう}の{仕事|しごと}、{一|いち}{日|にち}で{終|お}わりっこないよ。",
        "en": "There's no way this much work will get done in one day."
      },
      {
        "ja": "宝くじなんて当たりっこないと思いながら、毎年買っている。",
        "furigana": "{宝|たから}くじなんて{当|あ}たりっこないと{思|おも}いながら、{毎年|まいとし}{買|か}っている。",
        "en": "I buy lottery tickets every year, even though I figure there's no way I'll win."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "possibility",
      "negation",
      "casual"
    ],
    "notes": "Casual speech only; often with potential verbs (できっこない, 分かりっこない). A casual equivalent of 〜わけがない.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "0f20a4fd811edad26b91179ac620c8954e11e302c6b949ad72c8cbb82371a177",
      "meanings": [
        "绝不可能"
      ],
      "formation": "动词ます形去ます＋っこない",
      "explanation": "强烈否定某事实现的可能性。",
      "notes": "属于口语，常接可能动词。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "こんな量の仕事、一日で終わりっこないよ。",
          "zh": "这么多工作，一天绝对做不完。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "宝くじなんて当たりっこないと思いながら、毎年買っている。",
          "zh": "我一边觉得彩票不可能中奖，一边每年都买。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#kko-nai",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "6efe0a720bdf9e17a82caaf541a53bfff8c274ce451bc71ac3f291e8134db624"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "dokoro-ka",
    "pattern": "〜どころか",
    "romaji": "dokoro ka",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "far from; let alone; on the contrary",
    "formation": "Verb-plain / i-Adj / na-Adj / Noun + どころか",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "薬を飲んだが、熱は下がるどころか、ますます高くなった。",
        "furigana": "{薬|くすり}を{飲|の}んだが、{熱|ねつ}は{下|さ}がるどころか、ますます{高|たか}くなった。",
        "en": "I took medicine, but far from going down, my fever got even higher."
      },
      {
        "ja": "忙しくて、旅行どころか週末に休むこともできない。",
        "furigana": "{忙|いそが}しくて、{旅行|りょこう}どころか{週末|しゅうまつ}に{休|やす}むこともできない。",
        "en": "I'm so busy I can't even take weekends off, let alone travel."
      },
      {
        "ja": "彼は謝るどころか、逆に私を責めてきた。",
        "furigana": "{彼|かれ}は{謝|あやま}るどころか、{逆|ぎゃく}に{私|わたし}を{責|せ}めてきた。",
        "en": "Far from apologizing, he turned around and blamed me."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "contrast",
      "emphasis"
    ],
    "notes": "Either the reality is the opposite of A, or not even something lesser than A is possible (AどころかBも〜ない).",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "5e0f590c35306f92b73def3e7312b355bb42d52616a91596adb5035d8d6a5885",
      "meanings": [
        "岂止",
        "别说",
        "反而"
      ],
      "formation": "动词・い形容词普通形＋どころか；な形容词词干・名词＋どころか",
      "explanation": "表示实际情况与前项相反，或连更基本的情况都做不到。",
      "notes": "根据上下文区分反转和程度递进。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "薬を飲んだが、熱は下がるどころか、ますます高くなった。",
          "zh": "吃了药，烧不但没退，反而更高了。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "忙しくて、旅行どころか週末に休むこともできない。",
          "zh": "忙得别说旅行，连周末都不能休息。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "彼は謝るどころか、逆に私を責めてきた。",
          "zh": "他不但不道歉，反而责备我。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#dokoro-ka",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "fb6fb38d1dcf24732d2d86b64ddd6f174a536f5a21ec89d6a10d32ba5dbfbedb"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "dokoro-de-wa-nai",
    "pattern": "〜どころではない",
    "romaji": "dokoro de wa nai",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "this is no time for; out of the question",
    "formation": "Verb-dict / Noun + どころではない",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "来週は試験なので、遊びに行くどころではない。",
        "furigana": "{来週|らいしゅう}は{試験|しけん}なので、{遊|あそ}びに{行|い}くどころではない。",
        "en": "I have exams next week, so this is no time to be going out."
      },
      {
        "ja": "引っ越しの準備に追われて、花見どころではなかった。",
        "furigana": "{引|ひ}っ{越|こ}しの{準備|じゅんび}に{追|お}われて、{花見|はなみ}どころではなかった。",
        "en": "I was so busy getting ready for the move that cherry blossom viewing was out of the question."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "negation",
      "emphasis"
    ],
    "notes": "The circumstances make A impossible or unthinkable right now. Casual: 〜どころじゃない.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "70470da77e63eb95b05b5f189d1a1eabd10f9f3fd8a18c7bc54554e0100d85aa",
      "meanings": [
        "哪有工夫",
        "谈不上"
      ],
      "formation": "动词辞书形＋どころではない；名词＋どころではない",
      "explanation": "表示目前的处境使前项不可能或不合时宜。",
      "notes": "口语可说どころじゃない。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "来週は試験なので、遊びに行くどころではない。",
          "zh": "下周要考试，哪有工夫出去玩。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "引っ越しの準備に追われて、花見どころではなかった。",
          "zh": "忙着准备搬家，根本顾不上赏花。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#dokoro-de-wa-nai",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "0cb799e42f3f6d343c002b8c21de3c046293c58c4a2736ba31bb2a392865da4e"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "to-wa-kagiranai",
    "pattern": "〜とは限らない",
    "reading": "〜とはかぎらない",
    "romaji": "to wa kagiranai",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "not necessarily; not always",
    "formation": "Verb-plain / i-Adj / na-Adj / Noun + とは限らない",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "値段が高いからといって、品質がいいとは限らない。",
        "furigana": "{値段|ねだん}が{高|たか}いからといって、{品質|ひんしつ}がいいとは{限|かぎ}らない。",
        "en": "Just because something is expensive doesn't necessarily mean it's good quality."
      },
      {
        "ja": "専門家の意見がいつも正しいとは限らない。",
        "furigana": "{専門|せんもん}{家|か}の{意見|いけん}がいつも{正|ただ}しいとは{限|かぎ}らない。",
        "en": "Experts' opinions are not always right."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "negation",
      "possibility"
    ],
    "notes": "Denies that something is always true; often with 必ずしも or 〜からといって.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "c9849392ec9bd57b69cf90160eb836890417e709998fd1badc8b01b8b827337f",
      "meanings": [
        "未必",
        "不一定"
      ],
      "formation": "动词・い形容词普通形＋とは限らない；な形容词词干・名词＋とは限らない",
      "explanation": "否定某事总是成立的判断。",
      "notes": "常与必ずしも搭配。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "値段が高いからといって、品質がいいとは限らない。",
          "zh": "价格高，品质未必就好。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "専門家の意見がいつも正しいとは限らない。",
          "zh": "专家的意见未必总是正确的。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#to-wa-kagiranai",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "b7d002c356a5c4cd367395de2d2cee027749905cbf038f1dcfd9c7fd3200a823"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "to-iu-mono-da",
    "pattern": "〜というものだ",
    "romaji": "to iu mono da",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "that's what (A) is; that's just how it is; that's really",
    "formation": "Verb-plain / i-Adj / na-Adj / Noun + というものだ",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "困っている人がいたら助ける。それが人情というものだ。",
        "furigana": "{困|こま}っている{人|ひと}がいたら{助|たす}ける。それが{人情|にんじょう}というものだ。",
        "en": "When someone's in trouble, you help them. That's what human kindness is."
      },
      {
        "ja": "何の準備もせずに合格しようなんて、虫がよすぎるというものだ。",
        "furigana": "{何|なん}の{準備|じゅんび}もせずに{合格|ごうかく}しようなんて、{虫|むし}がよすぎるというものだ。",
        "en": "Expecting to pass without any preparation is just wishful thinking."
      },
      {
        "ja": "一人で全部やろうとするのは無理というものだ。",
        "furigana": "{一人|ひとり}で{全部|ぜんぶ}やろうとするのは{無理|むり}というものだ。",
        "en": "Trying to do it all alone is simply unrealistic."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "emphasis",
      "criticism"
    ],
    "notes": "A firm opinion about what something really is or how things naturally are. Often used to criticize an attitude.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "e524dabcae5d7b8385567955a1a5084b84f3657b5a3bc2291f5d5cd77c894f0d",
      "meanings": [
        "这才叫",
        "实在是"
      ],
      "formation": "动词・い形容词普通形＋というものだ；な形容词词干・名词＋というものだ",
      "explanation": "强烈表达对事物本质或做法的评价。",
      "notes": "也可用于批评。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "困っている人がいたら助ける。それが人情というものだ。",
          "zh": "有人困难就帮忙，这才叫人情。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "何の準備もせずに合格しようなんて、虫がよすぎるというものだ。",
          "zh": "什么准备都不做就想通过，实在太异想天开了。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "一人で全部やろうとするのは無理というものだ。",
          "zh": "想一个人做完所有事情，实在不现实。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#to-iu-mono-da",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "a2af186ca5445dfe498bd061882d7ea13f4eab4285199d5b54c4fa036fe555f6"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "to-iu-mono-de-wa-nai",
    "pattern": "〜というものではない",
    "romaji": "to iu mono de wa nai",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "it's not (necessarily) the case that; it doesn't follow that",
    "formation": "Verb-plain / i-Adj / na-Adj / Noun + というものではない",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "練習は長くやればいいというものではない。",
        "furigana": "{練習|れんしゅう}は{長|なが}くやればいいというものではない。",
        "en": "Longer practice isn't automatically better practice."
      },
      {
        "ja": "お金さえあれば幸せになれるというものではない。",
        "furigana": "お{金|かね}さえあれば{幸|しあわ}せになれるというものではない。",
        "en": "It's not as if money alone can make you happy."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "negation",
      "criticism"
    ],
    "notes": "Rejects an oversimplified belief; often with 〜ばいい or 〜さえ〜ば. 〜というものでもない is a softer variant.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "0ba64d4eca37d1950e0082c56321747fdc6ec34348e0efbb3759e150c5b0827e",
      "meanings": [
        "并非一定",
        "并不是说"
      ],
      "formation": "动词・い形容词普通形＋というものではない；な形容词词干・名词＋というものではない",
      "explanation": "否定过于简单的判断。",
      "notes": "というものでもない语气较缓。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "練習は長くやればいいというものではない。",
          "zh": "练习并不是时间越长就越好。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "お金さえあれば幸せになれるというものではない。",
          "zh": "并不是只要有钱就一定能幸福。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#to-iu-mono-de-wa-nai",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "4f305c1cb060a92b2b7af0ae798d97edfd2968c465aac98b04e2e2d0f6b97eaa"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "to-itte-mo",
    "pattern": "〜といっても",
    "romaji": "to itte mo",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "although I say; even though (it's called)",
    "formation": "Verb-plain / i-Adj / na-Adj / Noun + といっても",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "料理ができるといっても、簡単なものしか作れません。",
        "furigana": "{料理|りょうり}ができるといっても、{簡単|かんたん}なものしか{作|つく}れません。",
        "en": "I say I can cook, but I can only make simple things."
      },
      {
        "ja": "海外に住んでいたといっても、たった半年のことだ。",
        "furigana": "{海外|かいがい}に{住|す}んでいたといっても、たった{半年|はんとし}のことだ。",
        "en": "I did live abroad, but only for six months."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "concession",
      "limitation"
    ],
    "notes": "Corrects or limits what the listener might assume from the first statement. Often followed by たった, ただ or 〜しか〜ない.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "b98f5abd9719c6d7b9a7d7a5a99d20899c9e839a4c969f4c01a8c4b6ccc1170b",
      "meanings": [
        "虽说",
        "说是……但"
      ],
      "formation": "动词・い形容词普通形＋といっても；な形容词词干・名词＋といっても",
      "explanation": "修正或限制听者可能产生的印象。",
      "notes": "后项常用只、不过等表达。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "料理ができるといっても、簡単なものしか作れません。",
          "zh": "虽说会做饭，我也只会做简单的菜。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "海外に住んでいたといっても、たった半年のことだ。",
          "zh": "虽说住过国外，也不过半年。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#to-itte-mo",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "6f545286426f714184c35b3f34b1e743ce3eb3984a7b24b2fea011d9204d104f"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "to-ieba-to-iu-to",
    "pattern": "〜といえば / 〜というと",
    "romaji": "to ieba / to iu to",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "speaking of; when you think of; if you mention",
    "formation": "Noun + といえば / Noun + というと",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "日本の夏の風物詩といえば、やはり花火大会だろう。",
        "furigana": "{日本|にほん}の{夏|なつ}の{風物詩|ふうぶつし}といえば、やはり{花火|はなび}{大会|たいかい}だろう。",
        "en": "When you think of summer traditions in Japan, fireworks festivals come to mind first."
      },
      {
        "ja": "北海道というと、広い大地とおいしい海産物を思い浮かべる人が多い。",
        "furigana": "{北海道|ほっかいどう}というと、{広|ひろ}い{大地|だいち}とおいしい{海産物|かいさんぶつ}を{思|おも}い{浮|う}かべる{人|ひと}が{多|おお}い。",
        "en": "When people hear 'Hokkaido', many picture vast open land and delicious seafood."
      },
      {
        "ja": "旅行といえば、来月の出張の件はどうなりましたか。",
        "furigana": "{旅行|りょこう}といえば、{来月|らいげつ}の{出張|しゅっちょう}の{件|けん}はどうなりましたか。",
        "en": "Speaking of travel, what happened with next month's business trip?"
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "topic",
      "example"
    ],
    "notes": "Introduces something closely associated with a topic, or picks up a word just mentioned to shift the conversation. 〜といったら is a more emotional variant.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "2ea8c759771b2d66c0314dc0a9843dcc35a8c67036bb93518af40c2163ea52e8",
      "meanings": [
        "说到",
        "提起"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋といえば／というと",
      "explanation": "提起话题相关的事物，或借刚提到的话题转向另一件事。",
      "notes": "といったら语气更感性。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "日本の夏の風物詩といえば、やはり花火大会だろう。",
          "zh": "说到日本夏天的特色，果然是烟花大会。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "北海道というと、広い大地とおいしい海産物を思い浮かべる人が多い。",
          "zh": "提起北海道，很多人会想到广阔大地和美味海鲜。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "旅行といえば、来月の出張の件はどうなりましたか。",
          "zh": "说到旅行，下个月出差的事怎么样了？"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#to-ieba-to-iu-to",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "3e43bdff69ff113f8dd3c901ab5c696017c8c132eeb757158b0c9ab22c973229"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "hoka-nai",
    "pattern": "〜ほかない",
    "romaji": "hoka nai",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "have no choice but to; there's nothing to do but",
    "formation": "Verb-dict + ほかない / Verb-dict + よりほかない",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "終電を逃してしまったので、タクシーで帰るほかない。",
        "furigana": "{終電|しゅうでん}を{逃|のが}してしまったので、タクシーで{帰|かえ}るほかない。",
        "en": "I've missed the last train, so I have no choice but to take a taxi home."
      },
      {
        "ja": "自分で決めた道なのだから、前に進むよりほかない。",
        "furigana": "{自分|じぶん}で{決|き}めた{道|みち}なのだから、{前|まえ}に{進|すす}むよりほかない。",
        "en": "It's the path I chose, so there's nothing to do but keep going."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "obligation",
      "decision"
    ],
    "notes": "A somewhat formal equivalent of 〜しかない (N3). Variants: 〜ほかはない, 〜よりほかない, 〜ほかしかたがない.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "bad460541fc143c371e6272c13446c8630b7a3c93e8b36656af1242903946451",
      "meanings": [
        "只好",
        "别无选择"
      ],
      "formation": "动词辞书形＋ほかない／よりほかない",
      "explanation": "表示没有其他办法。",
      "notes": "比しかない稍正式。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "終電を逃してしまったので、タクシーで帰るほかない。",
          "zh": "错过末班电车，只好坐出租车回家。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "自分で決めた道なのだから、前に進むよりほかない。",
          "zh": "既然是自己选择的道路，就只能继续前进。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#hoka-nai",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "e9af01128b7e7ecd4a8f0eb8e0b4322a68b9df827d769798eb702e4e1217d82a"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "mai",
    "pattern": "〜まい",
    "romaji": "mai",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "will not (resolve); probably won't (conjecture)",
    "formation": "Verb-dict + まい / Verb-stem (ichidan verbs) + まい",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "あんな恥ずかしい思いは、二度とするまいと心に誓った。",
        "furigana": "あんな{恥|は}ずかしい{思|おも}いは、{二度|にど}とするまいと{心|こころ}に{誓|ちか}った。",
        "en": "I swore to myself that I would never go through such embarrassment again."
      },
      {
        "ja": "この大雨では、今日はもう誰も来るまい。",
        "furigana": "この{大雨|おおあめ}では、{今日|きょう}はもう{誰|だれ}も{来|く}るまい。",
        "en": "In this downpour, probably no one else will come today."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "negation",
      "intention",
      "conjecture"
    ],
    "notes": "Written/formal. First person: firm resolve not to (〜ないつもりだ). Others: negative guess (〜ないだろう). する → するまい / すまい. Often 〜まいと思う / 〜まいと決心する.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "04748bebfe45f250718aa264ea488cbfb6e20cf582c743e4818cedfb2c423bd1",
      "meanings": [
        "决不",
        "大概不会"
      ],
      "formation": "动词辞书形＋まい；一段动词ます形去ます＋まい",
      "explanation": "表示坚决不做，或推测某事不会发生。",
      "notes": "する可变为するまい或すまい；语气正式。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "あんな恥ずかしい思いは、二度とするまいと心に誓った。",
          "zh": "我暗自发誓绝不再经历那种丢脸的事。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "この大雨では、今日はもう誰も来るまい。",
          "zh": "雨这么大，今天大概不会再有人来了。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#mai",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "3b7cf7c70cb77b45366ec1ba6b49fc81387326087bca2f608885d4f000d836a1"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "you-de-wa-nai-ka",
    "pattern": "〜（よ）うではないか",
    "romaji": "you de wa nai ka",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "let's (formal call to action); why don't we",
    "formation": "Verb-volitional + ではないか / Verb-volitional + ではありませんか",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "この町の未来のために、皆で力を合わせようではないか。",
        "furigana": "この{町|まち}の{未来|みらい}のために、{皆|みな}で{力|ちから}を{合|あ}わせようではないか。",
        "en": "For the future of this town, let us all join forces."
      },
      {
        "ja": "失敗を恐れず、新しいことに挑戦してみようではありませんか。",
        "furigana": "{失敗|しっぱい}を{恐|おそ}れず、{新|あたら}しいことに{挑戦|ちょうせん}してみようではありませんか。",
        "en": "Let's not fear failure, and try taking on something new, shall we?"
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "invitation",
      "formal"
    ],
    "notes": "A strong, formal appeal to a group, typical of speeches and editorials. The casual version is 〜(よ)うじゃないか.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "d9a4d4c4ddda8acad77a8ab3457e0600a13ce98f706ecc49136adbfb66a5913e",
      "meanings": [
        "让我们……吧"
      ],
      "formation": "动词意志形＋ではないか／ではありませんか",
      "explanation": "向群体发出正式而有力的号召。",
      "notes": "口语可说じゃないか。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "この町の未来のために、皆で力を合わせようではないか。",
          "zh": "为了这个城镇的未来，让大家齐心协力吧。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "失敗を恐れず、新しいことに挑戦してみようではありませんか。",
          "zh": "让我们不怕失败，勇于尝试新事物吧。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#you-de-wa-nai-ka",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "6077401a0958b0ec1bff5088b281216b60ea7a6c9fdb9dce7c0d7a37b0f5621d"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "mo-kamawazu",
    "pattern": "〜もかまわず",
    "romaji": "mo kamawazu",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "without caring about; regardless of; paying no attention to",
    "formation": "Noun + もかまわず / Verb-plain + の + もかまわず",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "彼女は人目もかまわず、駅のホームで大声で泣いた。",
        "furigana": "{彼女|かのじょ}は{人目|ひとめ}もかまわず、{駅|えき}のホームで{大声|おおごえ}で{泣|な}いた。",
        "en": "She cried out loud on the station platform, not caring who was watching."
      },
      {
        "ja": "服が汚れるのもかまわず、子どもたちは泥の中で遊び続けた。",
        "furigana": "{服|ふく}が{汚|よご}れるのもかまわず、{子|こ}どもたちは{泥|どろ}の{中|なか}で{遊|あそ}び{続|つづ}けた。",
        "en": "The children kept playing in the mud without caring that their clothes were getting dirty."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "manner",
      "criticism"
    ],
    "notes": "Doing something without minding what people would normally care about (人目, 周囲, 雨). Often implies disapproval.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "213ba5090aad48014a0151e35047f3b847a6991e7197bc01c3c6e7a588d5ec3a",
      "meanings": [
        "不顾",
        "不在意"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋もかまわず；动词普通形＋のもかまわず",
      "explanation": "表示不顾通常会在意的事情而行动。",
      "notes": "有时含批评语气。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "彼女は人目もかまわず、駅のホームで大声で泣いた。",
          "zh": "她不顾他人目光，在车站站台上大声哭泣。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "服が汚れるのもかまわず、子どもたちは泥の中で遊び続けた。",
          "zh": "孩子们不顾衣服弄脏，继续在泥里玩。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#mo-kamawazu",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "d33478c5942c95445e0b2356dd327160b8543cfa95639753ce31e73409fe337f"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "jou",
    "pattern": "〜上",
    "reading": "〜じょう",
    "romaji": "jou",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "from the standpoint of; in terms of; for reasons of",
    "formation": "Noun + 上 / Noun + 上の + Noun",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "この映画には、教育上好ましくない場面が多い。",
        "furigana": "この{映画|えいが}には、{教育|きょういく}{上|じょう}{好|この}ましくない{場面|ばめん}が{多|おお}い。",
        "en": "This movie has many scenes that are undesirable from an educational standpoint."
      },
      {
        "ja": "安全上の理由から、この先には立ち入らないでください。",
        "furigana": "{安全|あんぜん}{上|じょう}の{理由|りゆう}から、この{先|さき}には{立|た}ち{入|い}らないでください。",
        "en": "For safety reasons, please do not go beyond this point."
      },
      {
        "ja": "法律上は問題がなくても、道徳的に許されないこともある。",
        "furigana": "{法律|ほうりつ}{上|じょう}は{問題|もんだい}がなくても、{道徳|どうとく}{的|てき}に{許|ゆる}されないこともある。",
        "en": "Even if something is legally fine, it may still be morally unacceptable."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "standpoint",
      "formal",
      "written"
    ],
    "notes": "Attaches to Sino-Japanese nouns (歴史上, 経験上, 健康上, 表面上). Read じょう, not うえ.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "8b13f8567a3b7b904dca140ef50d60d1551e5a385f5e548fddf14da26d5fc081",
      "meanings": [
        "在……方面",
        "从……上"
      ],
      "formation": "汉语词名词＋上／上の＋名词",
      "explanation": "表示从某个方面或由于某方面的原因。",
      "notes": "上读じょう。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "この映画には、教育上好ましくない場面が多い。",
          "zh": "这部电影有很多教育上不适宜的场面。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "安全上の理由から、この先には立ち入らないでください。",
          "zh": "出于安全原因，请不要进入前方区域。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "法律上は問題がなくても、道徳的に許されないこともある。",
          "zh": "即使法律上没有问题，也有道德上不能容忍的事。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#jou",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "b77556c7e55e617e2c4e41ae04e6779758f799679907746b87594a09c195fbb2"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "osore-ga-aru",
    "pattern": "〜おそれがある",
    "romaji": "osore ga aru",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "there is a risk that; could (bad outcome)",
    "formation": "Verb-dict + おそれがある / Noun + の + おそれがある",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "台風の影響で、今夜から大雨になるおそれがあります。",
        "furigana": "{台風|たいふう}の{影響|えいきょう}で、{今夜|こんや}から{大雨|おおあめ}になるおそれがあります。",
        "en": "Due to the typhoon, there is a risk of heavy rain from tonight."
      },
      {
        "ja": "この薬は眠くなるおそれがあるので、服用後の運転は避けてください。",
        "furigana": "この{薬|くすり}は{眠|ねむ}くなるおそれがあるので、{服用|ふくよう}{後|ご}の{運転|うんてん}は{避|さ}けてください。",
        "en": "This medicine may cause drowsiness, so avoid driving after taking it."
      },
      {
        "ja": "沿岸部には津波のおそれがあるため、避難指示が出された。",
        "furigana": "{沿岸|えんがん}{部|ぶ}には{津波|つなみ}のおそれがあるため、{避難|ひなん}{指示|しじ}が{出|だ}された。",
        "en": "An evacuation order was issued for coastal areas because of the risk of a tsunami."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "possibility",
      "formal"
    ],
    "notes": "For undesirable possibilities; typical of news, weather reports and official warnings. Also written 〜恐れがある. 〜かねない sounds more like the speaker's own judgment.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "2de1545b5fa7bd250c6e1f00fda10aaee84d533813cfd54254ca405ad2039701",
      "meanings": [
        "有……危险",
        "可能"
      ],
      "formation": "动词辞书形＋おそれがある；名词＋のおそれがある",
      "explanation": "正式表示有发生不良结果的可能。",
      "notes": "常用于新闻、天气预报和官方警告。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "台風の影響で、今夜から大雨になるおそれがあります。",
          "zh": "受台风影响，今晚起有下大雨的可能。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "この薬は眠くなるおそれがあるので、服用後の運転は避けてください。",
          "zh": "这种药可能使人困倦，服药后请避免开车。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "沿岸部には津波のおそれがあるため、避難指示が出された。",
          "zh": "由于沿岸地区有海啸风险，发布了避难指示。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#osore-ga-aru",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "59b662fc83accf8808cd063468c84ed34a14fe70acd408528eb5e659afa3b404"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "sei-ka",
    "pattern": "〜せいか",
    "romaji": "sei ka",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "perhaps because; maybe due to",
    "formation": "Verb-plain / i-Adj / na-Adj + な / Noun + の + せいか",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "年のせいか、最近疲れが取れにくくなった。",
        "furigana": "{年|とし}のせいか、{最近|さいきん}{疲|つか}れが{取|と}れにくくなった。",
        "en": "Maybe it's my age, but lately it takes longer to recover from fatigue."
      },
      {
        "ja": "昨夜遅くまで起きていたせいか、今日は頭がぼんやりしている。",
        "furigana": "{昨夜|さくや}{遅|おそ}くまで{起|お}きていたせいか、{今日|きょう}は{頭|あたま}がぼんやりしている。",
        "en": "Perhaps because I stayed up late last night, my head feels foggy today."
      },
      {
        "ja": "気のせいか、彼女は少し元気がないように見えた。",
        "furigana": "{気|き}のせいか、{彼女|かのじょ}は{少|すこ}し{元気|げんき}がないように{見|み}えた。",
        "en": "Maybe it was just my imagination, but she seemed a little down."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "reason",
      "conjecture"
    ],
    "notes": "The speaker isn't sure of the cause. Mostly for bad or neutral results; for good results おかげか is also used.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "73ce361817b3791986979a41b0976f9bb92030b815d1ce7d02b1170e3efd930f",
      "meanings": [
        "也许是因为"
      ],
      "formation": "动词・い形容词普通形＋せいか；な形容词词干＋な＋せいか；名词＋のせいか",
      "explanation": "表示不确定的原因，通常用于不理想或中性的结果。",
      "notes": "好的结果也可用おかげか。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "年のせいか、最近疲れが取れにくくなった。",
          "zh": "也许是年纪的缘故，最近疲劳不容易消除。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "昨夜遅くまで起きていたせいか、今日は頭がぼんやりしている。",
          "zh": "也许是昨晚熬夜的缘故，今天头脑昏沉。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "気のせいか、彼女は少し元気がないように見えた。",
          "zh": "也许是我的错觉，她看起来有点没精神。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#sei-ka",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "9bfbd707744bc50256d700b5f6c640009e710d5c05f372cacbc20f1b3068a9a6"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "dake-atte-dake-ni",
    "pattern": "〜だけあって / 〜だけに",
    "romaji": "dake atte / dake ni",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "as might be expected (since); precisely because; all the more because",
    "formation": "Verb-plain / i-Adj / na-Adj + な / Noun + だけあって・だけに",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "さすが一流ホテルだけあって、サービスが行き届いている。",
        "furigana": "さすが{一流|いちりゅう}ホテルだけあって、サービスが{行|い}き{届|とど}いている。",
        "en": "As you'd expect from a first-class hotel, the service is impeccable."
      },
      {
        "ja": "十年も日本に住んでいただけあって、彼の日本語はとても自然だ。",
        "furigana": "{十|じゅう}{年|ねん}も{日本|にほん}に{住|す}んでいただけあって、{彼|かれ}の{日本語|にほんご}はとても{自然|しぜん}だ。",
        "en": "As you'd expect from someone who lived in Japan for ten years, his Japanese is very natural."
      },
      {
        "ja": "期待していただけに、落選の知らせはショックだった。",
        "furigana": "{期待|きたい}していただけに、{落選|らくせん}の{知|し}らせはショックだった。",
        "en": "Because I'd had such high hopes, the news that I wasn't selected hit me all the harder."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "reason",
      "emphasis"
    ],
    "notes": "だけあって praises a result that matches expectations (often with さすが). だけに also means 'all the more because' and can lead to negative outcomes.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "eca9896eea3d3e387686cc58a2bcd44cd80da1f7f4c02ba33758c9ce1c72001d",
      "meanings": [
        "不愧是",
        "正因为"
      ],
      "formation": "动词・い形容词普通形＋だけあって／だけに；な形容词词干＋な＋だけあって／だけに；名词＋だけあって／だけに",
      "explanation": "表示结果符合预期，或因前项而更加感到后项。",
      "notes": "だけあって多用于称赞；だけに也可接不良结果。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "さすが一流ホテルだけあって、サービスが行き届いている。",
          "zh": "不愧是一流酒店，服务非常周到。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "十年も日本に住んでいただけあって、彼の日本語はとても自然だ。",
          "zh": "毕竟在日本住了十年，他的日语很自然。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "期待していただけに、落選の知らせはショックだった。",
          "zh": "正因为期待过，落选的消息才令人震惊。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#dake-atte-dake-ni",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "b639f10565af872bfb810ee321b327e08ec791978d0703f80a898eba19e94924"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "dake-no-koto-wa-aru",
    "pattern": "〜だけのことはある",
    "romaji": "dake no koto wa aru",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "it's no wonder; it lives up to; as expected of",
    "formation": "Verb-plain / i-Adj / na-Adj + な / Noun + だけのことはある",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "この料理は本当においしい。人気店だけのことはある。",
        "furigana": "この{料理|りょうり}は{本当|ほんとう}においしい。{人気|にんき}{店|てん}だけのことはある。",
        "en": "This food is really delicious. No wonder the place is so popular."
      },
      {
        "ja": "素晴らしい演奏だった。さすが毎日練習しているだけのことはある。",
        "furigana": "{素晴|すば}らしい{演奏|えんそう}だった。さすが{毎日|まいにち}{練習|れんしゅう}しているだけのことはある。",
        "en": "It was a wonderful performance. All that daily practice really shows."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "reason",
      "emphasis"
    ],
    "notes": "Judges a result as fully justified by the effort, price or reputation; often with さすが. Like 〜だけあって, but placed at the end of the sentence.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "9e75eb090a84c32cf62f8fa71526de1c5f7f68b8e25618586a543c1842783e19",
      "meanings": [
        "不愧",
        "果然"
      ],
      "formation": "动词・い形容词普通形＋だけのことはある；な形容词词干＋な＋だけのことはある；名词＋だけのことはある",
      "explanation": "评价结果符合付出的努力、价格或声誉。",
      "notes": "常与さすが搭配。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "この料理は本当においしい。人気店だけのことはある。",
          "zh": "这道菜真的很好吃，不愧是人气店。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "素晴らしい演奏だった。さすが毎日練習しているだけのことはある。",
          "zh": "演奏很精彩，果然不愧是每天练习。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#dake-no-koto-wa-aru",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "86cf6dc876b8c7afe5ffe9b0e339392132fe03428371f120762e28b3f2349f22"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "tatoe-te-mo",
    "pattern": "たとえ〜ても",
    "romaji": "tatoe ... te mo",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "even if; no matter",
    "formation": "たとえ + Verb-te + も / たとえ + i-Adj-ku + ても / たとえ + na-Adj + でも / たとえ + Noun + でも",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "たとえ反対されても、自分の夢を諦めるつもりはない。",
        "furigana": "たとえ{反対|はんたい}されても、{自分|じぶん}の{夢|ゆめ}を{諦|あきら}めるつもりはない。",
        "en": "Even if people oppose me, I have no intention of giving up my dream."
      },
      {
        "ja": "たとえ小さな会社でも、やりがいのある仕事がしたい。",
        "furigana": "たとえ{小|ちい}さな{会社|かいしゃ}でも、やりがいのある{仕事|しごと}がしたい。",
        "en": "Even if it's a small company, I want to do rewarding work."
      },
      {
        "ja": "たとえ給料が安くても、好きな仕事なら続けられる。",
        "furigana": "たとえ{給料|きゅうりょう}が{安|やす}くても、{好|す}きな{仕事|しごと}なら{続|つづ}けられる。",
        "en": "Even if the pay is low, I can keep at it if it's work I love."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "concession",
      "condition",
      "emphasis"
    ],
    "notes": "たとえ signals a hypothetical 'even if' in advance and strengthens it. A more written variant is たとえ〜としても.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "b21b01c9cafa73c6e26ad3ddac430b69fee647bcde881c7299693015becd2c33",
      "meanings": [
        "即使",
        "哪怕"
      ],
      "formation": "たとえ＋动词て形＋も；たとえ＋い形容词くて形＋も；たとえ＋な形容词词干・名词＋でも",
      "explanation": "强调假设性的让步。",
      "notes": "也可用たとえ〜としても。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "たとえ反対されても、自分の夢を諦めるつもりはない。",
          "zh": "即使被反对，我也不打算放弃梦想。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "たとえ小さな会社でも、やりがいのある仕事がしたい。",
          "zh": "即使是小公司，我也想做有意义的工作。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "たとえ給料が安くても、好きな仕事なら続けられる。",
          "zh": "即使工资低，只要是喜欢的工作就能坚持。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#tatoe-te-mo",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "c127fd73b3b53d6bcdfbd7a2449907c4ae4da5bf98fb5c8314107b3b4ffcce14"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "yara-yara",
    "pattern": "〜やら〜やら",
    "romaji": "yara ... yara",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "what with ... and ...; and ... and (among other things)",
    "formation": "Noun + やら + Noun + やら / Verb-dict + やら + Verb-dict + やら / i-Adj + やら + i-Adj + やら",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "引っ越しの前は、荷造りやら手続きやらで目が回るほど忙しかった。",
        "furigana": "{引|ひ}っ{越|こ}しの{前|まえ}は、{荷造|にづく}りやら{手続|てつづ}きやらで{目|め}が{回|まわ}るほど{忙|いそが}しかった。",
        "en": "Before the move, what with packing and paperwork, I was run off my feet."
      },
      {
        "ja": "財布をなくして、情けないやら腹が立つやらで、泣きたくなった。",
        "furigana": "{財布|さいふ}をなくして、{情|なさ}けないやら{腹|はら}が{立|た}つやらで、{泣|な}きたくなった。",
        "en": "I lost my wallet, and between feeling pathetic and angry, I wanted to cry."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "example",
      "emotion"
    ],
    "notes": "Lists a few examples among many, often suggesting chaos or mixed feelings. Frequently followed by で + 大変だ / 忙しい.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "80053a10fae1a3f8f000d8f41b62078b363870c6bb04f35e9937bdd43c6f7dd6",
      "meanings": [
        "又……又……"
      ],
      "formation": "名词＋やら＋名词＋やら；动词辞书形＋やら＋动词辞书形＋やら；い形容词＋やら＋い形容词＋やら",
      "explanation": "列举众多事物或复杂感受中的几个例子。",
      "notes": "常带忙乱或感情交织的意味。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "引っ越しの前は、荷造りやら手続きやらで目が回るほど忙しかった。",
          "zh": "搬家前又要打包又要办手续，忙得团团转。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "財布をなくして、情けないやら腹が立つやらで、泣きたくなった。",
          "zh": "丢了钱包，又难堪又生气，想哭。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#yara-yara",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "a56d8d41465bbb7248c6b16c8169b790d13c6fecb62d09e13f290707b56aa40a"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "zu-ni-sumu-naide-sumu",
    "pattern": "〜ずに済む / 〜ないで済む",
    "reading": "〜ずにすむ / 〜ないですむ",
    "romaji": "zu ni sumu / naide sumu",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "get by without; not have to; be spared from",
    "formation": "Verb-nai stem + ずに済む / Verb-nai + で済む",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "友人が車で送ってくれたので、タクシーを使わずに済んだ。",
        "furigana": "{友人|ゆうじん}が{車|くるま}で{送|おく}ってくれたので、タクシーを{使|つか}わずに{済|す}んだ。",
        "en": "My friend gave me a ride, so I didn't have to take a taxi."
      },
      {
        "ja": "早めに治療を始めたおかげで、手術しないで済んだ。",
        "furigana": "{早|はや}めに{治療|ちりょう}を{始|はじ}めたおかげで、{手術|しゅじゅつ}しないで{済|す}んだ。",
        "en": "Thanks to starting treatment early, I didn't need surgery."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "necessity",
      "negation"
    ],
    "notes": "Something unpleasant or costly turned out to be unnecessary. する → せずに済む. Compare Noun + で済む, 'be settled with just ...'.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "084c05e68f3258ac602fefe3cfc99af8ab3f1ba984cd623b72dcd1e2dd1be9d5",
      "meanings": [
        "免于",
        "不必"
      ],
      "formation": "动词ない形去ない＋ずに済む；动词ない形＋で済む",
      "explanation": "表示不必做令人不快或代价较大的事。",
      "notes": "する变为せずに済む。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "友人が車で送ってくれたので、タクシーを使わずに済んだ。",
          "zh": "朋友开车送我，所以不用坐出租车。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "早めに治療を始めたおかげで、手術しないで済んだ。",
          "zh": "多亏及早治疗，免去了手术。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#zu-ni-sumu-naide-sumu",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "441ce7434fb912059a1187b76ca5f83e9b31d9d0a4e180cdbf07ec115b8b708a"
    }
  },
  {
    "id": "you-ni-yotte-wa",
    "pattern": "〜ようによっては",
    "romaji": "you ni yotte wa",
    "level": "N2",
    "meaning": "depending on how (one does it)",
    "formation": "Verb-stem + ようによっては",
    "examples": [
      {
        "ja": "考えようによっては、今回の失敗はいい教訓になったとも言える。",
        "furigana": "{考|かんが}えようによっては、{今回|こんかい}の{失敗|しっぱい}はいい{教訓|きょうくん}になったとも{言|い}える。",
        "en": "Depending on how you look at it, you could say this failure taught us a good lesson."
      },
      {
        "ja": "古い家具も、使いようによってはおしゃれなインテリアになる。",
        "furigana": "{古|ふる}い{家具|かぐ}も、{使|つか}いようによってはおしゃれなインテリアになる。",
        "en": "Depending on how you use it, even old furniture can become stylish decor."
      }
    ],
    "tags": [
      "condition",
      "manner"
    ],
    "notes": "Mostly with 考え, 見, 言い, 使い: the result changes with the way A is done. Often offers a positive reinterpretation.",
    "zh": {
      "status": "reviewed",
      "source_hash": "39bc1e7adf6358c824cc788a4badcb4282f4144a0320b795220696d1eb427b32",
      "meanings": [
        "看怎样……",
        "取决于方式"
      ],
      "formation": "动词ます形去ます＋ようによっては",
      "explanation": "表示结果会因思考、看待或使用的方式而不同。",
      "notes": "常接考え、見、言い、使い等。",
      "examples": [
        {
          "ja": "考えようによっては、今回の失敗はいい教訓になったとも言える。",
          "zh": "换个角度想，这次失败也可以说是很好的教训。"
        },
        {
          "ja": "古い家具も、使いようによってはおしゃれなインテリアになる。",
          "zh": "旧家具看怎么使用，也能成为时髦的室内装饰。"
        }
      ],
      "references": [
        "sources/grammar/n2.json#you-ni-yotte-wa",
        "Original Chinese authored and reviewed by Codex; no independent human review"
      ],
      "reviewer": "Codex",
      "review_method": "ai",
      "reviewed_at": "2026-10-28",
      "review_hash": "6a3e3ff8bc326b602be57d5ece62f952df0e914502f25da2623100eaa4b35d7e"
    }
  }
]